The Utility of Debates as an Alternative Instructional Method

by Amanda Bridges, PharmD, PGY1 Pharmacy Practice Resident, University of Mississippi Medical Center 

The landscape of education is ever-changing with educators pioneering fresh ideas to disseminate knowledge and maintain student engagement. While traditional lectures remain a mainstay in many health professional degree programs, students often struggle to make meaningful connections with the subject matter. Healthcare topics are often complex and require motivation and engagement from students to apply content to future experiences. Studies have shown that active involvement in learning results in more favorable outcomes. The success of any teaching strategy is dependent on successful execution by the instructor. Enter debates – an instructional strategy that dates back to the 5th century. Debates provide an opportunity for students to thoroughly research and logically present a topic.  Moreover, debates foster critical thinking and help students build effective communication skills.¹ While not ideal in all didactic settings, debates are a great way to teach controversial topics that have literature to support different stances.

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Some of the most challenging skills to develop as students make the transition to independent practitioners are clinical decision-making and problem-solving.²  Students are often left to develop these skills after graduation in conjunction with learning the intricacies of a new career. Debates foster the development of both of these skills by encouraging critical thinking to formulate a well-reasoned argument. Successful preparation for the debate involves discovery and assessment of literature – a skill that students will continue to use throughout their careers. Additionally, the exercise helps students to develop effective and persuasive communication techniques that will prove useful during both professional and personal interactions. Traditional lectures, I believe, fall short at fostering the development of these skills.³ 

The implementation of debates as a learning strategy occurs in two distinct steps – the pre-debate and the debate. Instructors should prepare for the debate by framing the chosen topic as a debate – that is to say, making a statement regarding an issue rather than asking students to answer a question. Students are then assigned to two opposing sides – a pro side in favor of the statement and a con side who is opposed to the statement. During the pre-debate stage, students are expected to thoroughly research and prepare a brief (typically 10-12-minute) presentation to support their side of the argument as well as collect ample information to support their stance in the event of a rebuttal from the opposing side. During the debate, the two sides present their argument and a rebuttal followed by a discussion by the entire class, facilitated by the instructor, about both sides of the argument. Some teachers had added another opportunity for learning by having the students prepare test questions tho assesses the key points presented during the debate.^1,2 In addition to being a means to assess student understanding, question writing can stimulate interest in academia as a career path.

In contrast to the assessment techniques used after traditional lectures, which focus on knowledge acquisition, debates can be used to evaluate students on concepts other than knowledge. Typically, the desired learning outcomes are assessed using a rubric that is given to the students before they begin their debate assignment. The assessment of individual students should focus on the persuasiveness of the presentation, use of data to support the argument, composure during the debate as well as eye contact and body language. An assessment of the debate team (or group) could include avoidance of redundancy during the formulation of the argument – an indirect way to assess team communication.¹ The evaluation rubric can be modified based on faculty resources and class size.² 

Studies have shown that students may benefit more from a debate when the approach is coupled with a patient case. Without this application, students struggle to make the connection with clinical practice.¹ Using debates repeatedly during a course can help students hone their skills.  When asked, students admitted that the initial debates took much longer to prepare than those occurring later in the semester.² 

While this instructional method has some clear advantages, debates as a teaching strategy also have limitations. As a student who struggled to speak up and express opinions in front of the class, I can see how this approach is intimidating. However, as healthcare professionals on an interdisciplinary team, it is essential we develop the confidence and poise to speak up and make appropriate recommendations. For students who struggle to speak up, a solution might involve grouping similar students on a team so that there isn’t a strong personality to drown them out. Additionally, debates inherently encourage competition which could lead to a trivialization of issues for the sake of winning.³ The goal is not to “win” the argument but rather to thoroughly research and present the argument with clarity using facts.  Once both sides of the argument are clearly understood, it’s important to emphasize consensus-building and compromise. Lastly, debates can be time-consuming and require a lot of faculty manpower. It may be necessary to split up students into subgroups in a large class to allow direct observation during multiple debate sessions.²

As a student I would have been terrified to take a course that required students to debate topics throughout the semester.  But in retrospect, the opportunity to enhance critical thinking and clinical decision-making using a debate format would have been immensely valuable. The greatest utility of debates, in my opinion, lies in the exploration of topics not easily explained in black and white terms during traditional lectures.

References

1. Charrois TL, Appleton M. Online debates to enhance critical thinking in pharmacotherapy. Am J Pharm Educ. 2013; 77 (8): Article 170.
2. Hawkins WA, Fulford M, Phan S V. Using debates as the primary pedagogy to teach critical care in a PharmD curriculum elective course. Curr Pharm Teach Learn. 2019; 11 (9): 943-948.
3. Darby M. Debate: a teaching-learning strategy for developing competence in communication and critical thinking. J Dent Hyg. 2007; 81 (4).

Role Modeling: The Forgotten Influence

by Ashley Janis, Pharm.D., PGY1 Pharmacy Practice Resident, the Johns Hopkins Hospital

The role of an educator, in the classroom and in practice, is to foster learning and serve as a role model.  Role modeling can be defined as teaching by example and influencing people in an oftentimes unintentional, unaware, informal, and episodic manner.¹ Thus, we all serve as role models for learners in our field through our routine actions.  Role modeling has often been referred to as the “hidden curriculum” of professional education as we often lack understanding regarding the influence role modeling has on learners.¹ Students learn behaviors that appear successful to them in light of their personal goals and rewards.  This is a foundational principle of social learning theory and how role models exert influence on others.

In a study published in 1997, researchers at the McGill University School of Medicine examined opinions of fourth year medical students using a questionnaire.³  Ninety percent of the responders identified one or more role models during their training.³ Many (35%) indicated that resident physicians were the most influential role models during the clinical portion of their academic training.² This finding demonstrates that pharmacy residents have a profound effect on student pharmacists.  As pharmacy residents, we have frequent interactions with students.  It may be easy to forget that we have an obligation to be a positive model of pharmacy practice.

Several common factors were consistently ranked high when students selected role models: personality, clinical skills and competence, teaching abilities.² Interestingly, position, academic rank, research experience, and publications were less important.² This finding suggests that is it not just the well-established, published, infamous leaders who are revered as models.  Instead, professionals of all age and rank may be influential.

Role models were not only important in helping students develop their knowledge and skill but 57% of students claimed their role model influenced their decision regarding their clinical specialty for residency training.²  Thus, the potential impact of a role model is very significant and can shape and inspire a career. 

While role models often influence learners in positive ways, it is important to discuss the potential for a negative impact.  In a study surveying students at the University of Texas Medical Branch in Galveston, the professional behavior of faculty and residents was examined.⁴  The authors found that the preceptors scored lowest on the following behaviors:  1) use of constructive criticism instead of backbiting about peers, and 2) consulting others when they lack the required knowledge.⁴  Prior research noted that students find bad-mouthing others as the most unprofessional behavior of faculty.⁴ Making negative comments about a specialty may discourage or decrease recruitment into that field.¹  And, it might incite pessimistic attitudes towards a learner’s chosen profession.¹  As we are emerging leaders and role models for future generations of pharmacists, we must hold ourselves to higher standards.  Negatively discussing colleagues sets a poor standard for ourselves and may also encourage bad habits.  In order to cultivate positive relationships between disciplines, we must refrain from voicing negative personal opinions in workplace conversations. 

To become positive role models, we must understand how our behavior affects others.  “Silent modeling is inadequate as a strategy.”¹ Where do we begin?  Role models must pay attention to their individual acts, encourage teamwork, and support others in their growth and development.⁵   Ideal role models inspire and teach by example.  The key is to be self-aware and self-critical.⁶

In order to change our behavior, we need to have the desire to improve and the insight to identify our strengths and weaknesses.⁶ Being self-critical of our current positive and negative actions in the workplace, allows us to develop personal improvement plans.  Self-reflection has two forms: “reflection-in-action,” thinking about changing the experience while it is underway, and “reflection-on-action,” critically evaluating an experience once it has passed.¹ Both are valuable tools to encourage change, and learner evaluations are a key source to identify areas of potential improvement.  Encourage your learners to critically evaluate you as a preceptor.  Skills to evaluate might include your ability to encourage teamwork and solve challenging problems with composure.  This may not be on the standard evaluation form, but it is appropriate to ask learners to evaluate you as a role model and as a source of clinical knowledge.  As you achieve positive marks, add new professional goals for learners to evaluate.  In this way, you have used your self-reflection and created a process to evolve and grow as a model.

Learners must learn to “talk the talk, and walk the walk.”¹ In this dynamic teaching method, role models talk through activities, explain their thought process, and allow for learners to discuss their own ideas and methods.¹ In this coaching method, students engage in the actions of their model, and receive verbal feedback.  For example, a preceptor on rounds may have a student observe the first day to familiarize with the experience.  After rounds, this preceptor can break down their thought process for recommendations by working through a patient with their learner.  In the following days, students learn how to model the appropriate behavior by presenting recommendations to both their preceptor and team, receiving feedback and constructive comments all the while.  We must set expectations.  If we fail to set appropriate guidelines for behavior, we have no basis for constructive criticism and students may feel lost without guidance.

Think back to the people who had a positive influence on your development and career choices.  Let their strengths serve as guide in your career.  When we become the person to be emulated, we have a profound effect on others.

References:

1.  Kenny NP, Mann KV, MacLeod H. Rolemodeling in physicians’ professional formation” reconsidering an essential butuntapped educational strategy. Academic Medicine 2003; 78: 1203-1209.

2.  Asghari F, Fard NN, Atabaki A. Are weproper role models for students? Interns’ perception of faculty and residents’professional behavior. Postgrad Med J. 2011;87:519-523.

3.  Wright S, Wong A, Newill C. The impact ofrole models on medical students. J Gen Intern Med. 1997; 12: 53-56.

4.  Szauter K, Williams B, Ainsworth MA, et al. Student perceptions of the professional behavior of faculty physicians. MedEduc Online. 2003; 8: 17.

5.  Macaulay S. Are you a good role model? Think:Cranfield. Feb 2010. Accessed 24 Nov 2012. 

6.  Ray S. Role Models. BMJ Careers. 13 Mar 2010. Accessed 24 Nov 2012.

Going Around in (Questioning) Circles

by Paul Ortiz, Pharm D., PGY1 Pharmacy Resident, Johns Hopkins Bayview Medical Center

The art of questioning is a useful tool to engage students and encourage critical thinking.  Instruction that includes well-crafted questions is a way to encourage higher order thinking about a subject.¹  Asking and answering questions often reveals knowledge that we never realized we possessed.  Whether in an academic or an informal social setting, questioning can force us to dig deep into our own psyche and reveal our thoughts and feelings.  Educators often use questioning as a tool to teach students, but how does one know which questions to ask? 

A model of questioning by Christenbury and Kelly called Questioning Circles (see figure) provides a structure for educators to develop questions about a topic.²  The Questioning Circle is comprised of 3 distinct areas of knowledge that overlap.  The 3 areas included in this model are Text (knowledge of the text/subject matter), Reader (personal response to the text), and World (knowledge of the world and other texts).²  Christenbury states that instruction using the Questioning Circles technique should include not only questions in the three separate circles (Text, Reader, and World), but more importantly, questions in the areas where the circles overlap.^2,3  The areas where 2 circles overlap (Text/Reader, Text/World, and Reader/World) allow the individual components to collide and enrich each other.  Finally, there is an area of Dense Questions in which all 3 circles must be considered.  These Dense Questions represent the most important questions and whose answers provide the deepest consideration of the subject matter.⁴

  

Christenbury and Kelly use the following example from The Adventures of Huckleburry Finn by Mark Twain to illustrate the Questioning Circles technique in action:

“Text: What does Huck say when he decides not to turn Jim in to the authorities.

Reader: When would you support at friend when everyone else thought he/she was wrong?

World: What was the responsibility of persons finding runaway slaves?

Text/Reader: In what situations might someone be less than willing to take the consequences for his or her actions?

Reader/World: Given the social and political circumstances, to what extent would you have done as Huck did?

Text/World: What were the issues during that time which caused both Huck’s and Jim’s actions to be viewed as wrong?

Dense Question: When is it right to go against the social/political structures of the time as Huck did when he refused to turn Jim in to authorities?”

(Christenbury, 1983)

Using questions as a means of instruction can be very effective for educators, and the Questioning Circles is a particularly useful tool.  Throughout my years in pharmacy school and currently during my residency, questioning from professors and preceptors has helped me learn and think critically.  The Socratic Method of teaching and questioning has been widely studied and used, and I wanted to further investigate other established methods of questioning.  One aspect of the Questioning Circles method that I thought was especially useful was the Reader’s perspective in this model.  This elicits the learner’s own thoughts and feelings about the particular topic, and brings meaning and relevance.  In my own experience, learning about a topic that is relevant to me and having an educator that makes the topic relatable to my own worldview is among the most effective means of learning.  Further, this questioning strategy encourages the teacher to relate the material to the World, and puts the subject matter into a larger context than perhaps the learner initially imagined.  Questioning Circles is a useful teaching tool for both new and experienced educators and can be applied to many different learning settings.

References
1.  Ciardiello AV. Did you Ask a Good Question Today? Alternative Cognitive and Metacognitive Strategies. J Adolesc Adult Lit. 1998; 42(3): 210-219.

2.  Christenbury L and Kelly P. Questioning: A Path to Critical Thinking. Urbana: ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication Skills and the National Council of Teachers of English; 1983. (ED 226 372)

3.  McComas, WF and Abraham L. Asking Better Questions.  USC University of Southern California. Los Angeles (CA): USC Center for Excellence in Teaching; 2005.

4.  Meyers, G. Whose Inquiry Is It Anyway? Using Student Questions in the Teaching of Literature. Urbana: National Council of Teachers of English; 2002.

Problem-based Learning …Does It Work?

by Omayma Kishk, PGY1 Pharmacy Practice Resident, University of Maryland Medical Center

As the field of pharmacy has shifted towards patient care, re-structuring of pharmacy curricula has occurred.  What once seemed like a foreign concept, problem-based learning (PBL) has become a common theme in not only pharmacy education but in the curricula for many other health professionals.

PBL is a teaching strategy in which the teaching and learning is focused around a specific problem (usually a patient case).  There are six main characteristics of PBL:¹

1.   Learning is student-centered
2.   Learning occurs in small groups
3.   Teachers act as facilitators
4.   The problem (or case) is the base for organized focus and learning
5.   The problem helps to develop and use problem solving skills
6.   New knowledge is gained through self-directed learning.

The beauty of problem-based learning is that it helps portray what a student pharmacist will encounter in the real world.  PBL allows students the luxury to develop and fine-tune their skills; to practice how they would approach these problems without risking patient harm.  Some may argue that students may not be ready for PBL because they will not know where to look or what to focus on.  I personally have a great deal of experience with PBL because my entire pharmacotherapy year as a P3 student at the  University of Mississippi School of Pharmacy used the PBL methodology.  I had a lot of these same concerns and couldn’t understand how I was supposed to teach myself subjects I was not yet familiar.  I was skeptical.  It seemed the student was forced to assume the teacher’s responsibilities.


Student-centered learning is a key characteristic of PBL. PBL is very flexible and can cater to many different learning styles.  Each student can learn in the manner that works best for the individual.  For instance, I enjoyed lectures and liked to hear the teacher talk about things.  I was terrified of PBL because I didn’t think I would get to hear the information.  But, I was mistaken. I soon realized that I could learn about the disease state by listening to my classmates.  I gained so much from our conversations.  I didn’t feel intimidated to ask questions.  Together we shared charts, resources, and ways to better understand the material.

Having a facilitator to help guide the discussions is important to keep the group focused and help direct the students with the case, especially the first part of the case.²  Only when the group is going in a completely wrong direction or developed a significant misunderstanding about the topic or the problem should a facilitator step in. Without this guidance, it would be difficult for students to know where to focus their efforts. In a study examining PBL learning strategies and outcomes among second year medical students at the University of Nebraska, student performance on examinations did not differ when students or faculty members served as facilitators.  However, students said they took more short cuts when a student facilitated the group.³  I recall some of my facilitators that “kept” the group for the entire two hours, forcing us to discuss every detail.  These were some of the group sessions where I learned the most.

PBL can be a daunting experience for students because the student really has to push him/herself to locate the material and study it.  You have to become a more skilled self-directed learner.  Students that have gone through PBL have said it is much harder than conventional didactic instruction.  But it is also more stimulating, engaging, and relevant than those boring, passive conventional lectures.⁴ PBL helps the student, early on, learn interpersonal skills and how to keep the patient’s needs in mind when developing treatment and monitoring plans.

For me, PBL was difficult but now that I have done clinical rotations both as a P4 student and as a PGY1 pharmacy resident, I truly appreciate all of the tools and skills I gained from PBL.  PBL cannot prepare students for every case or problem they will encounter, but it does build the skills needed to help solve problems.

References:

1.   Kilroy DA. Problem based learning. Emerg Med J. 2004; 21:411-3.

2. Ross LA, Crabtree BL, Theilman GD, Ross BS, Cleary JD, Byrd HJ. Implementation and refinement of a problem-based learning model: A ten-year experience. Am J Pharm Educ. 2007;71: Article 17.

3. Steele DJ, Medder JD, Turner P. A comparison of learning outcomes and attitudesin student- versus faculty-led problem-based learning: an experimental study. Med Educ. 2000;34:23-29.

4. Nandi PL, Chan JN, Chan CP, Chan P, Chan LP.  Undergraduate medical education: comparison of problem-based learning and conventional teaching. Hong Kong Med J. 2000; 6:301-6.

The Socratic Method - Asking the Right Questions

by Whitney Chaney, Pharm.D., PGY2 Critical Care Pharmacy Resident, University of Maryland Medical Center

If you are like most pharmacy students or residents completing clinical rotations, you have probably come into contact with a preceptor whose main teaching strategy is to fire questions, one after another.  This can be a good learning experience or a very bad one.  Imagine going on patient care rounds with a preceptor.  As you discuss various diagnoses and treatments, you are asked a series of very pointed questions to which the preceptor is looking for very specific answers.  You may know a few answers.   Some questions you are unsure what the preceptor is asking.  And sometimes you have no idea what the correct answers are.  As this goes on you get more and more nervous, blurting out a few too many "I don’t knows," and the scenario ends with the preceptor giving you a long lecture about the disease state … very little of which you remember because you have become so flustered, frazzled, and distracted by your thoughts.  The strategy of teaching through questions is often called the “Socratic teaching” method.  The Socratic method can be very useful and effective, but all too often it is misused and abused. 

Defining the Socratic teaching method is challenging – there is a lack of consensus on the exact definition.  Much of the information describing Socrates' teaching comes from the writings of his students.  They describe conversations with deep inquiry and intense debates on philosophical topics.  Generally speaking, the Socratic method involves asking a series of questions in a logical manner until a common “truth” is reached.  The goal of this type of inquiry is to stimulate critical thinking and lead to discussion in which the learner must use their baseline knowledge and analytical skills to reach a well supported conclusion.  This method is also meant to point out unsubstantiated, preconceived notions and gaps in knowledge.  In this process of inquiry, less emphasis was placed on the final answer, and more was placed on the thought process.  While Socrates generally used his method to explore and answer moral concepts, this strategy of questioning can be and often is applied to clinical teaching.

As pharmacy students and residents complete their pharmacy practice experiences, this method of questioning and discussion can be a very effective learning tool.  One key way in which it applies to healthcare is that good clinical practice (so called "truths") must be critically evaluated and supported by good evidence.  Teaching with Socratic questioning forces the learner to not only know the "answers," but also to understand the background and reasoning to support them.  Thus, the learner must be able to defend her/his recommendations and conclusions.  Furthermore, as the Socratic method helps build critical thinking skills, it prepares the learner to become an independent practitioner in an environment where the standard of care continues to change as new information becomes available.  Lastly, this method is very useful in experiential clinical settings because questioning and discussion can occur as situations arise in practice.

In order to effectively use the Socratic method, it is important to make sure that teachers and preceptors are asking the right questions – ones that stimulate discussion.  Questions should be asked in a thoughtful and logical manner in order to guide the learner to appropriate conclusions.  Using a variety of question types is more likely to achieve the learning objective.  Questions can be exploratory ... these types of questions probe for basic knowledge.  Challenge questions are intended to scrutinize conclusions and assumptions.  Diagnostic questions probe for causes, connections, or cause-and-effect relationships.   Extension questions are meant to expand on the discussion.  It is often useful for the instructor to use priority questions to help identify the most important points and, at the conclusion of the discussion, ask summary questions.  Questioning can also be categorized by the type of cognitive level following Bloom’s hierarchy of cognitive skills: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.  In addition to the type of question, another strategy is to think about the order of the questions.  Specifically, are the questions going from general to specific, simple to complex, or convergent to divergent?  Finally, as the teacher probes the learner, the teacher’s response to the answers also impacts the learning process.  It is important for the teacher to listen to the entire answer and use non-verbal cues that signals that he/she is interested in the learner’s thoughts.  Correct or well-reasoned answers should be appropriately praised, while partially correct answers should be accepted and the learner should guided down the correct path with additional inquiry.  Incorrect answers should be tactfully corrected in a non-judgmental manner. 

The Socratic method of questioning and discussion can be a valuable teaching tool, especially in the setting of clinical pharmacy training.  The secret to using this teaching tool is the appropriate use of questioning strategies and responding to the learner’s answers.  The Socratic method should be used to facilitate an open dialog and the instructor must take care to create a non-threatening learning environment, where learners are free from fear and anxiety.  Its important to keep an open mind, accept feedback, and be prepared to adjust the questioning strategy to ensure that every student and resident gets the best learning experience.   

References
1.  Oh RO.  The Socratic Method in Medicine—The Labor of Delivering Medical Truths.  Fam Med. 2005; 37:537-9.
2.  Lewis DP.  Using the Socratic Method in Office-based Teaching.  Fam Med 2004; 36:162-3.
3.  Edwards S, Bowman MA.  Promoting Student Learning Through Questioning: A Study of Classroom Questions. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching.1996; 7: 3-24.