Academic Help-Seeking Behaviors - Any Questions?

by Troy Z. Horvat, Pharm.D. PGY1 Pharmacy Practice Resident, Johns Hopkins Bayview Medical Center

From a young age, I was often told, “There are no stupid questions.” My parents employed this strategy to encourage me to ask questions and to not be embarrassed about seeking help. However, as I progressed through my undergraduate and doctoral curriculums I saw students asking fewer questions. As information became increasingly more complex, why weren’t students asking MORE questions? Now that I am a pharmacy resident with a career goal of becoming a faculty member at an academic institution, the question has become not only why are questions not being asked, but more importantly, what can I do as an educator to encourage this behavior.

Asking questions during or after class is an academic help-seeking behavior.  Academic help-seeking has been formally defined as “an achievement behavior involving the search for and employment of a strategy to obtain success.”¹ Historically, students displaying academic help-seeking behavior had been viewed as immature, dependent, and unintelligent.² Research now shows that there is a correlation between help-seeking behavior and academic success.³  Unfortunately, students who are struggling academically often don’t seek academic help and may display help-avoidance behavior. Whether a student displays academic help-seeking or help-avoidance behavior appears to be related to internal and external factors.

Internally, self-motivation, ego-achievement goals, and the perceived view of the instructor all play an important role in dictating which behavior will be expressed.²  Students that lack motivation or display ambivalence towards learning are more likely to display help-avoidance behavior.  However, not all behavior can be explained by ambivalence and lack of motivation. Some students do not seek academic assistance because it contradicts their desire for autonomy.⁴  The student’s perception of the instructor may also have a major impact on help-seeking behavior. If the student perceives the instructor as cold and unavailable, the student will be more likely to display help-avoidance behavior.⁵  Conversely, as a recently published study by Payakachat et al. illustrates, faculty who are perceived by the student to be respectful, accessible, approachable, and friendly increase help-seeking behavior.⁷

External factors such as social norms, the goal structure of the classroom, and the instructor’s approach (e.g. openness and flexibility) can positively or negatively impact academic help-seeking behavior.²  From a social point of view, students who ask questions in class are often criticized by their peers for their lack of understanding or unnecessarily extending the length of the class.  If students feel socially threatened by their peers, they will be more likely to display help-avoidance behavior.⁵  Additionally, asking for help is contrary to the importance that Western cultures place on self-reliance and independence.⁴  The goal structure of the classroom also plays a role in developing academic help-seeking behavior.  Learning environments that place a strong emphasis on grades and competition among students may discourage help-seeking behavior.  Conversely, learning environments that place a strong emphasis on effort and understanding, foster it.⁶  The instructor’s approach, openness, and flexibility may play the biggest role in developing a help-seeking culture. Research has shown instructors that use positive encouragement and set aside “student hours” (a more positive term for formal office hours) have better relationships with their students.⁸  Forming a better relationship with students will increase the students’ positive perception of their instructors and, as Payakachat showed, facilitates help-seeking behavior.⁷

Based on what we know about help-seeking and help-avoidance behaviors, what we can do as educators to facilitate a culture of help-seeking among students?  Perhaps the easiest strategies for an instructor to implement relate to their personal approach.  Instructors should display behaviors such as: respect, accessibility, approachability, and a friendly demeanor as these have been linked to the enrichment of academic help-seeking behavior.  Additionally, educators can restructure their learning environment to one that does not emphasize competition and grades, but focuses more on understanding. Finally, trying to be more interactive and engaging may help to increase student’s motivation and decrease ambivalence toward a topic or content area.

Looking back at my educational journey, I can point to a select few instructors who really fostered my help-seeking behavior.  While these instructors taught me at different times in my life, they had common qualities. They praised me for asking questions, discouraged others from teasing me when I asked questions, allotted enough time at the end of class for questions, were available outside of class (both in person and via email), and displayed a dedication to helping me achieve success.  As I progress through my career, I hope to incorporate these strategies into my own practice and facilitate a new generation of help-seekers.

References:

1. Ames R, Lau S. An attributional analysis of student help-seeking in academic settings. J Educ Psychology 1982;74:414-23.

2. Nelson-Le Gall S. Help-seeking behavior in learning. Rev Research Educ 1985;12:55-90.

3. Lee CJ. Academic help seeking: Theory and strategies for nursing faculty. J Nurs Educ. 2007;46:468-75.

4. Butler R. Determinants of help seeking: Relations between perceived reasons for classroom help-avoidance and help-seeking behaviors in an experimental context. J Educ Psychology 1998 00/00;90(4):630-43.

5. Ryan AM, Pintrich PR. "Should I ask for help?" The role of motivation and attitudes in adolescents' help seeking in math class. J Educ Psychology 1997;89:329-41.

6. Ryan AM, Gheen MH, Midgley C. Why do some students avoid asking for help? An examination of the interplay among students' academic efficacy, teachers' social-emotional role,and the classroom goal structure. J Educ Psychology 1998;90:528-35.

7. Payakachat N, Gubbins PO, Ragland D, et al. Academic help-seeking behavior among student pharmacists. Am J Pharm Educ. 2013;77: Article 7.

8. Harnish RJ, Bridges KR. Effect of syllabus tone: Students' perceptions of instructor and course. Social Psychology of Education: An International Journal. 2011;14:319-30.

Cheating and Plagiarizing: What Can Educators Do?

by Lindsay Samuel, PharmD PGY-1 Pharmacy Practice Resident, Sibley Memorial Hospital

In early February 2013, I was stunned to learn that nearly 70 Harvard University students were required to withdraw from the university due to cheating on a take-home exam.¹  Events such as this remind me that cheating and plagiarizing are an ongoing issue which hurts students, educators, and the integrity of the educational process.  I continue to wonder what prompts students to cheat and what can be done to prevent it?  In searching for the answers to this question, I discovered an insightful 2011 study completed by Dorothy Jones which explored academic dishonesty through student surveys.²  The results were then used to provide educators instructional strategies that address academic integrity.  The Jones study also caused me to reflect on my views on the topic. I have come to recognize that the instructional strategies have the potential to empower educators to promote academic integrity so that the learning process is not hindered by dishonorable work.

Why do students cheat?

To gain insight into why students cheat and plagiarize, Jones surveyed forty-eight undergraduate students about academic dishonesty.  When the students were posed the question “Why do students engage in academic dishonesty-cheating and internet plagiarism?,” the top reason was grades (92%). Other reasons cited in the study were: procrastination (83%), too busy (75%), lack of understanding (58%), no interest in the subject or assignment (50%), workload/schedule (33%), everyone does it and get away with it (25%), no big deal (17%), and peer pressure (17%).²  It is probably no surprise that students primarily cheat to get better grades but what’s perhaps most disturbing: once students receive better grades through cheating, they began to feel that they have earned these grades through their own academic merit.  Thus a cycle of cheating and self-deception can develop.³

What can educators do?

I once participated in a plagiarism workshop at a college preparatory conference.  The goal of the workshop was to provide students with the tools to recognize the various types of plagiarism and to openly discuss the consequences of dishonest academic work.  During the workshop, the instructor gave real-life examples of plagiarism and asked for participants’ ideas regarding ways that students can avoid putting themselves in these situations.  According to the Jones study, this type of direct instructional is a strategy that may lead to a reduction in academic dishonesty.  She noted that about seventy-five percent of the students surveyed in the study received information about academic dishonesty, cheating and plagiarism through informal mechanisms.  In addition to direct instruction about academic integrity, other instructional strategies that could reduce academic dishonesty including: including a written academic integrity policy or honor code as part of the course syllabus, a review of academic integrity policy during course orientation, providing a quiz on the academic integrity policy, including a learning activity or game, incorporating hyperlinks to internet tutorials on cheating or plagiarism, using plagiarism detection software, requiring students to cite sources in presentations, using the internet to teach about plagiarism, teaching students how to use citation tools, and encouraging ethical behavior and a “Do the Right Thing” attitude. Even though some of Jones’ instructional strategies cannot be implemented in every course, following one or two of these strategies can heighten awareness about the importance of this issue.

The workshop on plagiarism that I participated is a great example of what instructors can do to promote academic integrity.  Each participant read about a situation involving academic dishonesty and came up with a prevention strategy that promoted ethical behavior.  By the end of the workshop, students felt more empowered to recognize different types of academic dishonesty and how to avoid them.

Here are some additional ways to promote academic integrity:

• Require instructors to know the institution’s policies and procedures when cheating/plagiarizing is suspected and the potential punitive actions that can be taken.
• Require students to sign the institution’s academic integrity policy before entering the institution.
• Provide students with information and concrete examples of cheating/plagiarism including links to helpful internet sites such as:

§  Plagiarism101

§  Plagiarism:What It is and How to Recognize and Avoid It

§  Examples of Plagiarism

• Review how to cite other’s work. Proper citation is a learned behavior, and given the tools, empowers students to properly cite other’s work. This instruction will prevent plagiarism from unknowingly occurring.
• Analyze your campuses culture by having an open discussion on cheating and plagiarism with students.  Formally evaluate why and how students cheat on your campus. This awareness may help faculty adopt preventative measures when administering assessments. 

Cheating and plagiarism does not have to be an inevitable student behavior.  While addressing academic dishonesty, educators should not focus on the negative disciplinary actions that may occur when it is discovered, but should focus on prevention.  Discussions about cheating and plagiarism can be ongoing and dynamic conversations that empowers students and instructors to recognize the ethical issues that make this behavior so destructive.  Moreover, students can work with faculty to develop strategies to prevent it.  Given that grades are the primary reason for cheating and plagiarism, changes in grading practices may help to reduce academic dishonesty.  But without more research, it’s hard to know what grading practices would work best. One thing is for certain.  Academic integrity is an important issue that we all need to pay attention.

References

1.   Perez-Pena R. “Students Disciplined in Havard Scandal” The New York Times. The New York Times, 02 Feb. 2013. Web. Accessed February 16, 2013

2.   Jones DR. Academic Dishonesty: Are More Students Cheating? Business Communication Quarterly 2011; 74: 141-150.

3.  Sparks, Sarah D. "Studies Shed Light On How Cheating Impedes Learning" Education Week 2011; 30: 1-16. 

Instructor Feedback

by Nina Cimino, Pharm.D., PGY1 Pharmacy Practice Resident, Suburban Hospital

As a recent pharmacy school graduate, a current student of educational theory and practice, and as an aspiring teacher, I have been doing a lot of thinking about the transition from student to teacher.  As a student, I relied heavily on feedback to improve my performance.  As I continue learning about educational theory and looking for strategies to improve as a teacher in the classroom, I wondered how feedback fits into faculty self-reflection and development.  This topic has been receiving attention in the media, with Bill Gates advocating for more meaningful and frequent feedback to teachers as a tool to improve classroom instruction and educational outcomes.¹  Watch this video of Bill Gates discussing his ideas with CNN’s Fareed Zakaria.

During formal educational activities, students receive feedback from their instructors in a variety of formats:  

• Graded assignments and examinations provide feedback about a student’s mastery of course material
• Verbal feedback from faculty members provides suggestions for improvement
• Guidance during classroom discussions encourages students to engage with course material
• Encouragement from faculty members provides positive reinforcement and motivation
• Re-direction (when necessary) helps student identify areas for improvement

These sources of feedback all help learners determine if they understand course materials, are thinking rationally about concepts, and promotes self-reflection on ways to improve learning and understanding.  Once learners are no longer formal students in a classroom and assume the role of teacher, what are the sources of feedback to help them improve?

While many instructors receive feedback from students in the form of course evaluations, issues other than the effectiveness of a particular instructor may influence student evaluations.²  Students are admittedly biased by their own performance.  Their perceived success can impact their course evaluation, even though factors other than instructor effectiveness contributed to their performance.  While student feedback is one source of valuable information for teachers, other sources can also be valuable in promoting instructor self-reflection and improvement.

Northeastern University School of Pharmacy recently implemented a tool for peer observation and evaluation of faculty members.³  Faculty members received formal training on how to provide peer feedback from the University’s Center for Effective University Teaching and were asked to serve as a peer observer for a colleague’s large-group teaching activity.  The peer observation and evaluation process consisted of four components:

• A pre-observation meeting to discuss the objectives of the class session
• Classroom observation (one observation annually)
• A post-observation meeting to discuss the instructor’s self-reflection of his or her performance and the observer’s positive and constructive feedback (2-3 strengths and 2-3 areas for improvement were required)
• A post-student assessment meeting to assess the students’ achievement after completion of examinations and/or assignments

Surveys of faculty members before and after implementation of the peer observation program indicated that instructors found the program to be beneficial for improving their teaching.³  The majority of instructors who participated in the program (87%) reported making changes to some elements of their teaching (e.g. content, teaching methods, and/or assessment). In addition, 83% of participants agreed or strongly agreed “peer assessment is a better measurement of teaching effectiveness then [sic] student evaluations.”  The majority of participants also agreed that the benefits of participating in the peer observation and evaluation program outweighed the time commitment required.

In addition to student evaluations and peer observation programs, focus groups may also be used to gather information from students regarding the effectiveness of a teacher, course, or an entire educational program.⁴  While focus groups are not as easy to administer as traditional student evaluation surveys, they are particularly useful for exploring patterns or issues that arise during students’ evaluation of a teacher.  In addition to identifying student perceptions of a teacher’s effectiveness, focus groups allow for a facilitator to ask follow up questions in order to gain insight into issues identified by students.³

It is well recognized that feedback helps students identify strengths and areas for improvement, as well as promoting student self-assessment of their learning.  Providing instructors with feedback from multiple sources would arguably have similar benefits.  Student evaluations of courses and instructor effectiveness is undeniably important, but peer observation and evaluation, as well as student focus groups, can provide additional information that student evaluations simply don’t capture.  Focus groups allow for in-depth exploration of issues identified by students.  Feedback from a peer who understands the challenges faced based by instructors and who can offer suggestions for improvement based on personal experiences and successes would be invaluable.  These alternative feedback mechanisms are useful not only for instructors who are new to the profession but also seasoned instructors.

References: 

1.  Miks J. "Bill Gates on What Makes a Good Teacher." Global Public Square RSS. Cable News Network, 1 Feb. 2013. Web. 16 Feb. 2013.

2. The value and limitations of student ratings.  The Ideas Center, Inc.  Accessed on:  March 5, 2013.

3.  DiVall M., Barr J, Gonyeau M., et al.  Follow-up assessment of a faculty peer observation and evaluation program.  Am J Pharm Educ 2012; 76, article 61. 

4.  Eberly Center for Teaching Excellence. Using Focus Groups to Get Student Feedback. Carnegie Mellon: Enhancing Education. Carnegie Mellon University. Web. Accessed on:  Feb 25, 2013.