Gender Differences in Learning Preferences?

by Rachel Flurie, PGY1 Pharmacotherapy Resident, University of Maryland School of Pharmacy

Extensive research has documented that people learn in different ways and there are a variety of surveys and analytical schema to categorize these different learning preferences. This allows a person to understand how they learn best and also allows the teacher/learner to select teaching/learning methods that compliment these preferences. For example, I took the VARK (Visual, Aural, Read/Write, Kinesthetic) survey and found out that I am mostly a Read/Write learner.¹ Now that I have insight as to how I learn best, I can optimize my learning by picking materials that capitalize on my strengths. It’s always fun to take these questionnaires because they give you insights that you might not have been able to figure out on your own. In these learning descriptors, the emphasis is on the individual, irrespective of any other attributes or classifications we may have. But I began to wonder if fundamental genetic characteristics might influence our learning style.  For example, do males and females have learning preferences that are inherent to their gender?

In a broad sense, several stereotypes already exist about males and females when it comes to learning.  Men gravitate towards the sciences while women are attracted to the arts.  Men learn better by doing and women learning better by pondering. These stereotypes were perhaps relevant back when there was a distinctive division between males and females in terms of gender roles.  But do these stereotypes still apply today?  Or are learning styles truly based on individual preferences?

In my search for answers, I found several reviews and studies that focused on gender differences in learning preferences.^2,3  One review and meta-analysis explained the differences it found by relating them to Curry’s onion model.²  In this model there are three layers that explain learning preferences.   Learning preferences that fall in the inner most layer are considered fixed; those that fall in the middle layer are pretty stable but they are still subject to change; and those preferences that fall in the outer layer can be easily modified.  The meta-analysis found only one study out of 19 that showed a difference between men and women in an “inner layer” learning preference – certainly not enough to warrant a change in educational methods.  In the middle layer of the onion, a few studies that assessed learning preferences using Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory showed the following²:

• Women prefer concrete experiences while men prefer abstract concepts
• Women are more socially oriented than men
• Men are more grade-oriented and more competitive than women

In thinking back to all of my experiences, I would generally nod in agreement with these conclusions. The fact that they fall into the middle layer of the onion is a key point because these preferences might be linked to gender, but they’re certainly not permanent. As an educator, I would be mindful about these preferences when teaching. In circumstances where the learners are predominantly one gender, altering your teaching style based on these preferences might be helpful. For example, you might plan for more group discussions over individual assignments in an all-female classroom. But in mixed gender classrooms, other issues should influence your teaching more (e.g. the material being taught, the setting, the prerequisite knowledge of the learners).

Authors in another review noted that their literature search revealed a lot of variability in learning preference based on gender (and in some cases they were even contradictory!). For example, two studies used the same VARK survey to explore gender-associated learning differences.^4,5 One study, done in undergraduate physiology students, found that the males preferred multimodal instruction whereas the females were more likely to have single-mode preferences. The other study, done in first year medical students, found that the females tended to be more multimodal in learning style compared to their male counterparts. Perhaps the preferred learning style is also based on the material being taught? Personally, I think I have different learning preferences when I’m learning to cook a meal versus learning how to treat a patient’s hypertension. In the end, I’ve concluded, apart from a few generalizations that have been made, learning preferences are not significantly influenced by gender.

Suffice it to say, as a current learner and educator, I will not be relying on stereotypes when it comes to men versus women in education. Instead, I will consider learning preferences on an individual basis and will select the most appropriate methods based on the material being taught. While some preferences in life might be heavily influenced by gender, learning style is not one of them.

References:

1. Fleming N. VARK^® A guide to learning styles [Internet]. 2001 [cited 2013 March 11]. Available from: http://www.vark-learn.com/english/index.asp.

2. Severiens SE and Ten Dam GTM. Gender differences in learning styles: a narrative review and quantitative meta-analysis. High Educ. 1994;27:487-501.

3. Severiens SE and Ten Dam GTM. Gender and gender identity differences in learning styles. Edu Psychol. 1997;17:79-93.

4. Wehrwein EA, Lujan HL, DiCarlo SE. Gender differences in learning style preferences among undergraduate physiology students. Adv Physiol Educ. 2007;31:153-157.

5. Slater JA, Lujan HL, DiCarlo SE. Does gender influence style preferences of first-year medical students? Adv Physiol Educ. 2007;31:336-342.

Helping Students with ADHD Stay Focused

by Gary Flowers, Pharm.D., PGY1 Pharmacy Practice Resident, Suburban Hospital

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 9.5% of school children between the ages 4 and 17 have been diagnosed with ADHD, and this number is rising.¹  Undiagnosed, untreated ADHD can wreak havoc in an individual’s life and in the lives of loved ones.²  I’ve watched my brother’s daily struggles as they tried to improve his son’s grades at school.  My brother tried many methods at home to help his son but to no avail.  After much frustration, my brother sought help.  My nephew was diagnosed with ADHD.

ADHD is commonly treated with psychostimulant medications.  Psychostimulants have shown to be beneficial in the majority of people with ADHD by helping to diminish hyperactivity as well as improve attention problems which cause many of the behavioral symptoms.  Long-term studies have shown that these medications have protective effects against later psychopathology and reduced the chances of substance abuse in adolescents with ADHD.³

After evaluation of the individual’s needs, a teacher can devise a lesson plan built around the student’s needs and strengths.  These accommodations are incorporated in educational activities with other students in the class. These lesson plans are best constructed with the input of a multidisciplinary team and the parents of the child.  Teachers can often use assessment tools, such as learning style inventories, to better understand how to instruct the student and enhance his or her learning.  For consistency, there should be one designated teacher that is used as an advisor or coordinator for the student to rely on and report.

Short-term and long-term goals should be set for the student with ADHD and reassessed periodically over time (i.e. quarterly) and edited as needed to adjust for advancements or emerging deficits.  The goals should be written in the SMART format: specific, measurable, attainable, realistic, and timely.

Students with ADHD benefit from the teaching best practices we’ve all learned.  For example, teachers should explicitly explain learning objectives at the beginning of the lesson so students know what is expected.  At the beginning of each class the teacher should review previous topics and then connect that information with the information being covered that day or week.  Using a variety of audiovisual materials can help reinforce concepts.

Simplifying and breaking work into smaller units makes information easier and more palatable for students with ADHD to digest.  Time limits during tests may need to be relaxed or eliminated in order for the student with ADHD to successfully demonstrate what he or she has learned and retained.⁴  

Although the media typically focuses on children, many adults have ADHD too.  Adults tend to have similar challenges as children, such as, disorganization and staying attentive for long periods of time.  Unfortunately, it is more difficult to diagnose ADHD in adults due to the variability and vagueness of their symptoms.  Moreover, the symptoms must have began in childhood and persisted into adulthood in order to make the diagnosis of ADHD.⁵ 

Combination treatment, medications plus behavioral interventions, work best for the majority of people with ADHD.  Adjustments may need to be made throughout life to control one’s actions and minimize the urge to take unnecessary risks.  Teachers (and parents) need to remember that it’s important to be patient, experiment with different strategies, and seek support.

Fortunately, my brother sought help early and my nephew received the help he needed.  They tried medication but focused on behavioral modification using positive and negative feedback.  Teachers at his school and my brother set short and long term goals for my nephew.  He is now seventeen and has plans to join the military after graduation!

References

1.  Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (US). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). [Internet]. 2011 Dec 12 [cited 2013 Mar 10].

2.  Pliszka S. Practice parameter for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry  2007 46(7):894-921.

3.  Albert P. Drugs for kids: Good or bad? J Psychiatry Neurosci 2012; 37(5):293-5.

4.  U.S. Department of Education. Teaching children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Instructional strategies and practices. [Internet]. 2004 Feb [cited 2013 Mar 10].

5.  National Institute of Mental Health. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). [Internet]. 2009 Jan 23 [cited 2013 Mar 10].

Academic Help-Seeking Behaviors - Any Questions?

by Troy Z. Horvat, Pharm.D. PGY1 Pharmacy Practice Resident, Johns Hopkins Bayview Medical Center

From a young age, I was often told, “There are no stupid questions.” My parents employed this strategy to encourage me to ask questions and to not be embarrassed about seeking help. However, as I progressed through my undergraduate and doctoral curriculums I saw students asking fewer questions. As information became increasingly more complex, why weren’t students asking MORE questions? Now that I am a pharmacy resident with a career goal of becoming a faculty member at an academic institution, the question has become not only why are questions not being asked, but more importantly, what can I do as an educator to encourage this behavior.

Asking questions during or after class is an academic help-seeking behavior.  Academic help-seeking has been formally defined as “an achievement behavior involving the search for and employment of a strategy to obtain success.”¹ Historically, students displaying academic help-seeking behavior had been viewed as immature, dependent, and unintelligent.² Research now shows that there is a correlation between help-seeking behavior and academic success.³  Unfortunately, students who are struggling academically often don’t seek academic help and may display help-avoidance behavior. Whether a student displays academic help-seeking or help-avoidance behavior appears to be related to internal and external factors.

Internally, self-motivation, ego-achievement goals, and the perceived view of the instructor all play an important role in dictating which behavior will be expressed.²  Students that lack motivation or display ambivalence towards learning are more likely to display help-avoidance behavior.  However, not all behavior can be explained by ambivalence and lack of motivation. Some students do not seek academic assistance because it contradicts their desire for autonomy.⁴  The student’s perception of the instructor may also have a major impact on help-seeking behavior. If the student perceives the instructor as cold and unavailable, the student will be more likely to display help-avoidance behavior.⁵  Conversely, as a recently published study by Payakachat et al. illustrates, faculty who are perceived by the student to be respectful, accessible, approachable, and friendly increase help-seeking behavior.⁷

External factors such as social norms, the goal structure of the classroom, and the instructor’s approach (e.g. openness and flexibility) can positively or negatively impact academic help-seeking behavior.²  From a social point of view, students who ask questions in class are often criticized by their peers for their lack of understanding or unnecessarily extending the length of the class.  If students feel socially threatened by their peers, they will be more likely to display help-avoidance behavior.⁵  Additionally, asking for help is contrary to the importance that Western cultures place on self-reliance and independence.⁴  The goal structure of the classroom also plays a role in developing academic help-seeking behavior.  Learning environments that place a strong emphasis on grades and competition among students may discourage help-seeking behavior.  Conversely, learning environments that place a strong emphasis on effort and understanding, foster it.⁶  The instructor’s approach, openness, and flexibility may play the biggest role in developing a help-seeking culture. Research has shown instructors that use positive encouragement and set aside “student hours” (a more positive term for formal office hours) have better relationships with their students.⁸  Forming a better relationship with students will increase the students’ positive perception of their instructors and, as Payakachat showed, facilitates help-seeking behavior.⁷

Based on what we know about help-seeking and help-avoidance behaviors, what we can do as educators to facilitate a culture of help-seeking among students?  Perhaps the easiest strategies for an instructor to implement relate to their personal approach.  Instructors should display behaviors such as: respect, accessibility, approachability, and a friendly demeanor as these have been linked to the enrichment of academic help-seeking behavior.  Additionally, educators can restructure their learning environment to one that does not emphasize competition and grades, but focuses more on understanding. Finally, trying to be more interactive and engaging may help to increase student’s motivation and decrease ambivalence toward a topic or content area.

Looking back at my educational journey, I can point to a select few instructors who really fostered my help-seeking behavior.  While these instructors taught me at different times in my life, they had common qualities. They praised me for asking questions, discouraged others from teasing me when I asked questions, allotted enough time at the end of class for questions, were available outside of class (both in person and via email), and displayed a dedication to helping me achieve success.  As I progress through my career, I hope to incorporate these strategies into my own practice and facilitate a new generation of help-seekers.

References:

1. Ames R, Lau S. An attributional analysis of student help-seeking in academic settings. J Educ Psychology 1982;74:414-23.

2. Nelson-Le Gall S. Help-seeking behavior in learning. Rev Research Educ 1985;12:55-90.

3. Lee CJ. Academic help seeking: Theory and strategies for nursing faculty. J Nurs Educ. 2007;46:468-75.

4. Butler R. Determinants of help seeking: Relations between perceived reasons for classroom help-avoidance and help-seeking behaviors in an experimental context. J Educ Psychology 1998 00/00;90(4):630-43.

5. Ryan AM, Pintrich PR. "Should I ask for help?" The role of motivation and attitudes in adolescents' help seeking in math class. J Educ Psychology 1997;89:329-41.

6. Ryan AM, Gheen MH, Midgley C. Why do some students avoid asking for help? An examination of the interplay among students' academic efficacy, teachers' social-emotional role,and the classroom goal structure. J Educ Psychology 1998;90:528-35.

7. Payakachat N, Gubbins PO, Ragland D, et al. Academic help-seeking behavior among student pharmacists. Am J Pharm Educ. 2013;77: Article 7.

8. Harnish RJ, Bridges KR. Effect of syllabus tone: Students' perceptions of instructor and course. Social Psychology of Education: An International Journal. 2011;14:319-30.

Cheating and Plagiarizing: What Can Educators Do?

by Lindsay Samuel, PharmD PGY-1 Pharmacy Practice Resident, Sibley Memorial Hospital

In early February 2013, I was stunned to learn that nearly 70 Harvard University students were required to withdraw from the university due to cheating on a take-home exam.¹  Events such as this remind me that cheating and plagiarizing are an ongoing issue which hurts students, educators, and the integrity of the educational process.  I continue to wonder what prompts students to cheat and what can be done to prevent it?  In searching for the answers to this question, I discovered an insightful 2011 study completed by Dorothy Jones which explored academic dishonesty through student surveys.²  The results were then used to provide educators instructional strategies that address academic integrity.  The Jones study also caused me to reflect on my views on the topic. I have come to recognize that the instructional strategies have the potential to empower educators to promote academic integrity so that the learning process is not hindered by dishonorable work.

Why do students cheat?

To gain insight into why students cheat and plagiarize, Jones surveyed forty-eight undergraduate students about academic dishonesty.  When the students were posed the question “Why do students engage in academic dishonesty-cheating and internet plagiarism?,” the top reason was grades (92%). Other reasons cited in the study were: procrastination (83%), too busy (75%), lack of understanding (58%), no interest in the subject or assignment (50%), workload/schedule (33%), everyone does it and get away with it (25%), no big deal (17%), and peer pressure (17%).²  It is probably no surprise that students primarily cheat to get better grades but what’s perhaps most disturbing: once students receive better grades through cheating, they began to feel that they have earned these grades through their own academic merit.  Thus a cycle of cheating and self-deception can develop.³

What can educators do?

I once participated in a plagiarism workshop at a college preparatory conference.  The goal of the workshop was to provide students with the tools to recognize the various types of plagiarism and to openly discuss the consequences of dishonest academic work.  During the workshop, the instructor gave real-life examples of plagiarism and asked for participants’ ideas regarding ways that students can avoid putting themselves in these situations.  According to the Jones study, this type of direct instructional is a strategy that may lead to a reduction in academic dishonesty.  She noted that about seventy-five percent of the students surveyed in the study received information about academic dishonesty, cheating and plagiarism through informal mechanisms.  In addition to direct instruction about academic integrity, other instructional strategies that could reduce academic dishonesty including: including a written academic integrity policy or honor code as part of the course syllabus, a review of academic integrity policy during course orientation, providing a quiz on the academic integrity policy, including a learning activity or game, incorporating hyperlinks to internet tutorials on cheating or plagiarism, using plagiarism detection software, requiring students to cite sources in presentations, using the internet to teach about plagiarism, teaching students how to use citation tools, and encouraging ethical behavior and a “Do the Right Thing” attitude. Even though some of Jones’ instructional strategies cannot be implemented in every course, following one or two of these strategies can heighten awareness about the importance of this issue.

The workshop on plagiarism that I participated is a great example of what instructors can do to promote academic integrity.  Each participant read about a situation involving academic dishonesty and came up with a prevention strategy that promoted ethical behavior.  By the end of the workshop, students felt more empowered to recognize different types of academic dishonesty and how to avoid them.

Here are some additional ways to promote academic integrity:

• Require instructors to know the institution’s policies and procedures when cheating/plagiarizing is suspected and the potential punitive actions that can be taken.
• Require students to sign the institution’s academic integrity policy before entering the institution.
• Provide students with information and concrete examples of cheating/plagiarism including links to helpful internet sites such as:

§  Plagiarism101

§  Plagiarism:What It is and How to Recognize and Avoid It

§  Examples of Plagiarism

• Review how to cite other’s work. Proper citation is a learned behavior, and given the tools, empowers students to properly cite other’s work. This instruction will prevent plagiarism from unknowingly occurring.
• Analyze your campuses culture by having an open discussion on cheating and plagiarism with students.  Formally evaluate why and how students cheat on your campus. This awareness may help faculty adopt preventative measures when administering assessments. 

Cheating and plagiarism does not have to be an inevitable student behavior.  While addressing academic dishonesty, educators should not focus on the negative disciplinary actions that may occur when it is discovered, but should focus on prevention.  Discussions about cheating and plagiarism can be ongoing and dynamic conversations that empowers students and instructors to recognize the ethical issues that make this behavior so destructive.  Moreover, students can work with faculty to develop strategies to prevent it.  Given that grades are the primary reason for cheating and plagiarism, changes in grading practices may help to reduce academic dishonesty.  But without more research, it’s hard to know what grading practices would work best. One thing is for certain.  Academic integrity is an important issue that we all need to pay attention.

References

1.   Perez-Pena R. “Students Disciplined in Havard Scandal” The New York Times. The New York Times, 02 Feb. 2013. Web. Accessed February 16, 2013

2.   Jones DR. Academic Dishonesty: Are More Students Cheating? Business Communication Quarterly 2011; 74: 141-150.

3.  Sparks, Sarah D. "Studies Shed Light On How Cheating Impedes Learning" Education Week 2011; 30: 1-16.