Attitude on Aptitude

by Yuze Yang, Doctor of Pharmacy Candidate, University of Maryland School of Pharmacy

Most students have had to take several standardized tests throughout their academic careers.  Some gauge students solely on their knowledge and expertise, while others assess students on their aptitude.  Aptitude is defined as an innate ability, rather than an acquired knowledge, to perform certain tasks at a certain skill capacity.  Standardized aptitude tests have been utilized in a variety of ways, from identifying children with learning difficulties as early as in elementary school, to conversely distinguishing gifted students with higher propensities for scholastic success.  One of the most notable and notorious examples of an aptitude test, taken by millions of high school students each year to determine their readiness for college, is the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT).  On the surface, the SAT evaluates students’ achievement in basic algebra, geometry, reading and writing. However, in deeper ways, the exam is also similar to an IQ test in measuring students’ abilities to interpret and analyze presented information and solve problems.  Nevertheless, the validity and usefulness of employing aptitude tests to establish the paths in which students proceed in their academic careers still remains controversial.

Admission to most pharmacy schools in the U.S. follows similar requirement patterns as to undergraduate schools, including the use of a standardized aptitude test as one of the key components.  Endorsed by the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy, the Pharmacy College Admissions Test (PCAT) has been the preferred qualification verifier for admission to pharmacy schools since 1975. It tests students in both aptitude and achievement in seven areas: verbal ability, quantitative ability, biology, chemistry, reading comprehension, and two writing sections.  The objective of the exam is to determine if they are suitable for a future in pharmacy by assessing not only the depth of background knowledge candidates have acquired, but also their capacities to learn and process new information.  The PCAT score is the most frequently used standardized test used as a selection criteria among colleges of pharmacy.  Several studies have been conducted regarding the correlation of PCAT scores with academic success, most of which have shown them to be significant predictors of pharmacy students' first-year GPA.¹  Allen and colleagues examined several pre-pharmacy predictors of success in pharmacy schools and found PCAT scores to be one of the best predictors not only for the first professional year but also for success in practice-related courses and clerkships.²  Despite these findings, some pharmacy schools have elected to NOT use the PCAT among their admission criteria and instead place more emphasis on prior academic achievements.  One such example is the University of California San Francisco (UCSF), whose pharmacy program has been ranked #1 for several years according to US News and World Report.³  Numerous factors are used to determine whether or not a candidate is accepted to UCSF.  Thus, opponents of standardized tests believe that such tests aren’t necessary to make good admission decisions and don’t enhance the successfulness of a school in terms of cultivating a student body or offering a excellent degree program.  Furthermore, PCAT test scores have not been correlated with future job performance.⁴

Since pharmacy schools produce future medical professionals who will become responsible for the well-being of the public, they must use the highest standards for selecting top-quality students that can master the material.  As more and more new schools of pharmacy open and accept growing pools of candidates to join the field, being able to discern who will excel in all aspects of pharmacy education, not simply test-taking and information acquisition, will be increasingly critical.  Hence, the success of students’ careers, both academic and professional, will likely rely on gauging not only the aptitude for learning material and scoring well on tests, but also the degree of motivation, conscientiousness, and dedication to translating information to improved patient care.  In other words, aptitude AND attitude are equally important.

References

1. Kuncel NR, Credé M, Woo SE.  Ameta-analysis of the validity of the Pharmacy College Admission Test (PCAT) andgrade predictors of pharmacy student performance.  Am J Pharm Educ. 2005; 69:3.

2. Allen DD, Bond CA. Pre-pharmacy indicators of success in pharmacy school: grade point averages, pharmacy college admissiontest, communication abilities, and critical thinking skills. Pharmacotherapy. 2001;21:842-849.

3. US news and world report pharmacy school rankings (2008). Retrieved October 23, 2011 from

4. Munson JW Bourne DW. Pharmacy College Admission Test (PCAT) as a predictor ofacademic success. Am J Pharm Educ. 1976; 40:237–9.

Does Matching A Student's Learning Style Really Help?

by Sara Hummel, Doctor of Pharmacy Candidate, University of Maryland School of Pharmacy

While browsing the internet, I came across something in The Chronicle of Higher Education entitled “Matching Teaching Style to Learning Style may not Help Students” by David Glenn.¹  This immediately caught my attention.  For the past few weeks we have been discussing learning styles in this course and how knowing the students’ style can positively impact learning.  Now someone proposes that this may not help us at all.  I wanted to know more.

The article refers to a review of the primary literature done by Pashler and colleagues published in the journal Psychological Science in the Public Interest.²  The authors contend that there is insufficient scientific evidence supporting the commonly held notion that matching one’s teaching style to your students’ learning style enhances teaching effectiveness. Pashler reports that they found little research regarding learning and teaching styles that used an experimental design.  Glenn’s article points out that other researchers in the field and supporters of learning-teaching style “matching hypothesis” felt that Pashler’s statements seemed biased and “largely ignorant of the field”.

The “matching hypothesis” purports that a student learns best if his/her learning style is matched with a corresponding instructional method.  However, Pashler found little to no evidence in support of the hypothesis.  Indeed, many studies showed contradicting evidence.  Instead, Pashler proposes, that it may be more important to match the instructional method to the content.  In a study by Massa and Mayer, subjects showed no differences in performance when given instructional methods matching their preferred learning style.³  Subjects were given a computer based electronics lesson with help screens either matched or opposite to their learning style preference- either visual (pictures) or verbal (text).  The researchers found no differences in performance among the subjects.  Instead, the experiment found that all learners benefited more from visual than verbal help during the lesson.

Pashler gives another example (that I could well relate to) from a student’s perspective. When teaching molecular structure, students often learn better when taught with stick models (kinesthetic learning) than by reading assigned text book chapters (verbal learning) – regardless of the student’s preferred learning style.  Other examples that come to my mind from personal experience is learning how to take a patient’s blood pressure (highly kinesthetic) or analyzing a poem in a literature class (highly verbal).  The content of the instruction is probably most relevant in terms of deciding what teaching methods to employ – not the students’ preferred learning styles.

Another study done by David W. Laight used concept maps as an instructional tool to teach pharmacy students about health care.⁴  In his study, Laight asked students to report the usefulness of concept maps and participate in a learning style preference evaluation.  Although this study was not designed to evaluate the "matching hypothesis" per se, the results showed no statistically significant association between the students’ reported usefulness of concept maps and their preferred learning style.  This surprised me, since I would have expected visual learners to prefer such a tool when compared to verbal or kinesthetic learners.

So why should we learn about learning style in this class?  Learning about learning style differences probably makes us better teachers.  Knowing that students have individual preferences for receiving information helps us to be more open-minded and to consider incorporating different instructional methods into our teaching repertoire.

I personally think that Pashler brings up some valid points.  I disagree with his view that there is no basis for matching the instructional method to learning style.  He admits that matching the two results in higher student satisfaction. And we know that motivation is important to learning.

I do, however, agree that not all topics can be taught using any instructional method in an attempt to tailor it to a specific group of students or learning style.  It seems logical to me to teach hands on (aka kinesthetic) topics with “hands on” instructional methods.  It is important that one considers both, the topic to be taught, as well as, the learners’ preferences, before deciding on how to teach the content.

References

1. Glenn D. Matching teaching style to learning style may not help students. The Chronicle of Higher Education, December 15, 2009.

2. Pashler H, Mcdaniel M, Rohrer D. Learning styles: concepts and evidence. Psychological Science In the Public Interest 2009; 9: 105-19.

3. Massa LJ, Mayer RE. Testing theATI hypothesis: Should multimedia instruction accommodate verbalizer-visualizercognitive style? Learning and Individual Differences 2006; 16 : 321-5.

4.  Laight DW. Attitudes to concept maps as a teaching/learning activity in undergraduate healthprofessional education: influence of preferred learning style. Med Teach 2004; 28: 229-33.  

Creating a Critical Learning Environment

By Calvin J. Meaney, Pharm.D., PGY-1 Pharmacy Practice Resident, University of Maryland Medical Center

In his widely celebrated book “What the Best College Teachers Do”, Ken Bain proposes that a vital asset of an effective teacher is the ability to create a “natural critical learning environment.”¹ In this environment, a student is able to apply prior knowledge and encounter a new idea or concept.  In so doing, the student is require to critically evaluate the idea and draw conclusions based on guidance from the teacher and shaped by their own knowledge in collaboration with other students.

An atmosphere such as this would be ideal!  But many educators struggle with implementation.  Bain argues that such an environment can be created in nearly any class or discipline.  Below is a step-wise guide:

1. Ask a question

By posing an intriguing question or problem to students they will be internally motivated and feel engaged in their learning.  It demonstrates to the students that the teacher respects their autonomous thought process and has genuine interest in their assessment of the question.  Selecting a provocative or controversial topic is an effective technique to stir the pot and stimulate student participation.
 
2.  Explain the significance of the question

The context and importance of the question/problem needs to be emphasized by the teacher.  This will further motivate students.
 
3. Encourage high-order intellectual activity

Bloom’s taxonomy recognizes that evaluation, analysis, and synthesis are at the top of the cognitive pyramid.²  Engaging in these higher order activities are the goal of a critical learning environment.  Bain defines effective learning in that it makes “a sustained, substantial, and positive influence on the way a student acts, thinks, and feels”.  This is achieved through high-order intellectual activity.  This step is the “meat” of the critical learning environment and often the most difficult to achieve.  Engaging in active learning techniques is fundamental.  Michael Prince reviewed the available literature on effectiveness of active learning techniques in an engineering curriculum.³  He concluded that all modalities of active learning have proven benefits, with problem solving and cooperative activities having the largest effect size.
 
4. Facilitate the student’s ability to answer the question 

An effective critical learning environment should foster the ability of the students to draw conclusions based on evidence and prior knowledge.  The teacher needs to recognize when re-direction needs to be given students or groups by evaluating their progress through the given problem.  Key verbs are:  encourage, engage, and challenge.  Students should be motivated to make a stance and defend it. In order for a student to think critically they must feel comfortable.  The atmosphere should be non-judgmental, feedback should be constructive and consistent, and collaboration between students should be encouraged. 

5. Leave the students with a question

If the learning environment has been successful, students should leave with a thorough understanding of the topic, but should also be inquisitive about what comes next.  The “so now what?” question should be raised at the end of class to emphasize this.

 

How do we apply this to pharmacy education? 


In pharmacy education, the case-based approach appears to be the ideal mechanism by which to create a natural critical learning environment.  This student and problem-centered approach to instruction has been shown to improve critical thinking and clinical decision making.^4,5  An active learning approach to the cases facilitates the learner’s involvement and can improve participation and motivation.


From my own experience in my doctor of pharmacy program, I can recall class sessions when active, case-based learning activities created an effective critical learning environment.  My large class was divided into groups of ten students and each group was given a different case related to the same topic.  There were four questions posed for each case that were intriguing because they were open, complex, and controversial.  Each group was given time to research the case, consider the questions, and discuss their responses.  The instructor would walk around the room during the small-group research/discussion period to foster critical thinking by asking additional questions, providing guidance in a non-judgmental fashion, and giving feedback on preliminary answers.  Later, each group presented the case, questions, and answers to the whole class.  As each group presented their case, the questions were displayed on the screen so that the other groups could consider what their own responses might be.  The group would then present their responses, justifications, and defend them if questioned by other groups or the teacher.  At the end of each session, students were asked to write on an index card two things that they learned and two unanswered questions.


This method incorporates all 5 steps outlined in best practices for creating a critical learning environment and was, in my opinion, a very effective teaching strategy.  Indeed, the performance of the students on the exam we took after this session was one of the highest during our entire four-year program.

References

1.  Bain K. What the Best College Teachers Do. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; 2004.

2.  Bloom B, Engelhart M, Furst E, Hill W, Krathwohl D. Taxonomy of educational objectives: the classification of educational goals. In: Green, editor. Handbook I: Cognitive Domain. New York: Longmans; 1956.

3.  Prince M. Does Active Learning Work? A Review of the Research. Journal of Engineering Education 2004;93:223-31.

4.  Fisher RC. The Potential for Problem-Based Learning in Pharmacy Education: A Clinical Therapeutics Course in Diabetes. Am J Pharm Educ 1994;58:183-9.

5.  Cisneros RM, Salisbury-Glennon JD, Anderson-Harper HM. Status of Problem-Based Learning Research in Pharmacy Education: A Call for Future Research. Am J Pharm Educ 2002;66.

Professionalism: An Important Lesson

by Brandon Shank, Pharm.D., PGY-1 Pharmacy Practice Resident, The Johns Hopkins Hospital

When I entered pharmacy school, the concept of professionalism was presented early in my program.  I distinctly remember reciting the Oath of a Pharmacist at my white coat ceremony.  However, at that time, I did not fully understand the importance of professionalism or the skills needed to behave as a professional. The American Pharmaceutical Association Academy of Students of Pharmacy (APhA-ASP) and the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy Council of Deans (AACP-COD) Task Force on Professionalism defined professionalism as the demonstration of the traits of a professional.¹ The American Board of Internal Medicine describe professionalism as the commitment to the highest standards of excellence in the practice of medicine and in the generation and dissemination of knowledge, sustain the interests and welfare of patients, and the responsiveness to the health needs of society.²

The Ten Traits of a Professional according to APhA-ASP and AACP-COD are:¹

1.     Knowledge and skills of the profession

2.     Commitment to self-improvement of skills and knowledge

3.     Service orientation

4.     Pride in the profession

5.     Covenantal relationship with client

6.     Creativity and innovation

7.     Conscience and trustworthiness

8.     Accountability for his or her work

9.     Ethically sound decision making

10.  Leadership

When teaching professionalism, it is essential that educators lead by example. Faculty should act in a manner that exemplifies professionalism and creates an environment in which students can effectively learn. A systematic approach to teaching professionalism should be implemented.  Having students set goals and objectives as well as tracking and assessing progress are important steps to fostering a student’s development as a professional. Expectations should be established early on in the pharmacy program. Opportunities for students to learn and practice professionalism should be made available. Such opportunities may include professional organizations, Introductory Pharmacy Practice Experiences (IPPEs), Advanced Pharmacy Practice Experiences (APPEs), community service, and work experience.

Assessing a student’s professionalism can be challenging.  Dr. Chisholm and colleagues developed a pharmacy professionalism self-assessment instrument.³  Their 18-item instrument assesses six tenets: excellence, respect for others, altruism, duty, accountability, and honor/integrity. The authors compared the professionalism of first year pharmacy students with recent graduates. There were no differences between the two groups.  Another study found that professionalism measured by this instrument was greatest during the first and fourth professional years of pharmacy school.⁴  Therefore, widely implementing this tool may have limited utility for the purpose of monitoring an individual student’s growth. Preceptor or faculty evaluation offers another avenue for evaluating professionalism in didactic and experimental components of a pharmacy curriculum. However, the opinion of faculty and preceptors can be subjective.  Thus further research is needed to develop objective evaluation methods. At the present time, preceptor and faculty facilitated discussions and formative feedback is the most appropriate way to teach and assess professionalism until validated tools are created.

Professionalism remains a core element of a pharmacy student’s education. More research is needed regarding the effectiveness of various methods to develop student’s professionalism skills. Patient interaction throughout the curriculum, in the form of IPPEs and APPEs, will aid in fostering professionalism traits beyond what can be learned in the classroom. Schools of pharmacy should strategically integrate, assess, and track students’ professionalism.

References

1.     American Pharmaceutical Association Academy of Students of Pharmacy and American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy, Council of Deans Task Force on Professionalism. White Paper on Pharmacy Student Professionalism [Internet]. 1999 July 1 [cited 2011 Oct 2]

2.     American Board of Internal Medicine, Committees on Evaluation of Clinical Competence and Clinical Competence and Communication Programs. Project Professionalism [Internet]. Philadelphia, (PA): American Board of Internal Medicine; 1995 [updated 2001; cited 2011 Oct 2]

3.     Chisholm MA, Cobb H, Duke L, McDuffie C, Kennedy WK.  Development of an Instrument to Measure Professionalism. Am J Pharm Educ. 2006;70(4):1-6.

4.     Duke LJ, Kennedy WK, McDuffie C, Miller M, Sheffield M, Chisholm M. Student attitudes, values, and beliefs regarding professionalism. Am J Pharm Educ. 2005;69:1-11.

Grades! Do They Help or Hinder Learning?

By Jennifer Yen, Pharm.D., PGY-1 Pharmacy Practice Resident, The Johns Hopkins Hospital

Students are taught to value grades at a young age.  Even from something as simple as a gold star to the A+, grades are viewed as an indicator of how knowledgeable one is on a topic.  But are grades really a good proxy for learning?   Grades do not necessarily reflect the knowledge a student has gained and may actually impede learning if a student is single-mindedly focused on achieving that A+. Grades might be necessary in order to efficiently classify a student’s progress; however, there is a fine balance between earning a grade and acquiring the knowledge.

Grades are traditionally seen as “the sticks and carrots of a classroom,¹” which makes them nearly impossible to discard.  Many people believe that assigning grades cultivates self discipline and motivation, driving students to achieve higher marks because they either see them as rewards or as a sign of failure.¹ However, grades are an extrinsic satisfaction: when the grades no longer matter then the motivation disappears. Students who are more intrinsically motivated are more invested in the outcome of their learning. For example, students who are expected to teach the material they learn may have an intrinsic motivation to understand the material. Having students actively engaged increases their focus on higher-level learning.¹ According to a review by Lowman¹ regarding motivational strategies, a way to de-emphasize grades is to avoid using them to penalize students. Instead, he suggested using formative feedback, having ungraded assignments, and stressing personal satisfaction. However this might not always be feasible or practical in a setting with a larger number of students. With a large class of students there would not be enough time or resources for a teacher to give everyone this kind of individual attention.

Another approach is to adopt a pass-fail system.  This system is often used by medical schools and in some pharmacy curriculum as well. A pass-fail system de-emphasizes grades, removing the external motivation for students to strive for that A+.  In theory, it encourages students to study to satisfy their intellectual curiosity. Gold and his colleagues² studied college students who took all of their courses or one course on a pass-fail basis too determine how it affected their academic performance. Their findings showed that students who took at least one course on a pass-fail basis versus those who took all of their courses for a letter grade, tended to get significantly lower grades after returning to a letter-grade course.  While the results suggest that students may be harmed by pass-fail courses, it is not clear that the students in this student learned how learn for the sake of learning rather than for a grade.  Also, the study did not look into how invested these students were in their course of study or how subsequent course work related to their future professional goals.  Thus, the results may not be applicable to students who enrolled in health professional education programs.  A study done at the Mayo Clinic College of Medicine³ showed that a pass-fail grading system significantly reduced stress and increased group cohesion in medical students. These benefits arguably improve their learning and professional careers.

Students with a strong interest in learning tend to see the classroom “as a context in which they expect to encounter new information and ideas that will be both personally and professionally significant.¹” On the other hand, students with a stronger interest in grades viewed the classroom as something they had to endure “as a necessary evil”¹ to achieve their professional goals.  Traditionally, teaching is often focused around the teacher, creating an environment where the essential motivator for students is getting good or avoiding poor grades.⁴ The classroom teacher has the opportunity to change this mentality and use grades as a tool for learning rather than the ultimate goal of learning, thereby encouraging students to use their intrinsic satisfaction to drive learning.⁴

Another approach to reduce a grade-oriented mentality includes developing a closer and more trusting relationship between teachers and students by abolishing the use of a syllabus.⁴  Proponents of this strategy argued that the large number of rules outlined in a syllabus convey the teacher’s mistrust of students. Others have proposed a student-centered model of instruction.  But such models often raise concerns about resources and minimizing the teacher’s role despite their considerable experience and knowledge.  Another model that de-emphasizes grades is the senior-junior partnership.  This model emphasizes collaboration between student while acknowledging that there is a hierarchical relationship. The junior partner (student) is required to respond to the senior’s instructions (teacher) and use the opportunity to learn. However, the senior partner takes responsibility for and is committed to the success of the junior. It is believed the mutual responsibility between the two encourages learning.⁴

There are several models proposed to encourage students to learn. Though, they all have their nuances, one theme is common: to encourage a better relationship between teachers and students where each invests in mutual success. Grades are practical in the sense that they define a certain standard that must be met and easily allows others to determine the qualifications of a student or applicant. Indeed, many pharmacy schools and residency training programs have a minimum GPA requirement they use in order to narrow the number of applicants they have to interview. However, in terms of learning, grades do not seem to be necessary and can take the focus off what’s most important.  There are methods teachers can utilize to de-emphasize grades and encourage deeper learning.

References:

1.    Joseph Lowman. Promoting Motivation and Learning. College Teaching, Fall 1990,Vol. 38, No. 4  pp. 136-139.

2.   Gold RM, Reilly A, Silberman R, Lehr R. Academic Achievement Declines under Pass-Fail Grading. The Journal of Experimental Education, Vol. 39, No. 3 (Spring, 1971), pp. 17-21.

3.    Rohe DE, et al. The Benefits of Pass-Fail Grading on Stress, Mood, and Group Cohesion in Medical Students. Mayo Clin Proc. November 2006 81(11):1443-1448.

4.    Farias G, Farias CM, Fairfield KD. Teacher as Judge or Partner: The Dilemma of Grades Versus Learning. Journal of Education for Business. 2010. 85:6, 336-342.