Gettin’ Diigo With It: Social Bookmarking in Higher Education

by Tara L Blesh-Boren, PharmD, PGY-1 Pharmacy Practice Resident, Sinai Hospital

As I sat down to begin working on this blog, I reflected on how nice it would be to increase my efficiency… or stretch time, but I’ve never been too successful at that! It seems that never-ending bumps in the road alter my well-designed schedule. When I was unable to find those important web links I was sure were saved in my browser, the irony of my situation hit me. Why, you ask? Because my blog topic was about using social bookmarking to enhance learning. A good bookmarking tool would have prevented the conundrum I had found myself in! One of the many benefits of social bookmarking is having an easily accessible, one-stop resource to quickly retrieve discoveries made during journeys through cyberspace. So, let’s discuss social bookmarking and how it might be used in higher education a bit more.

Social media use for collaborative learning has been rapidly increasing in higher education, with more than a 20% increase between the years 2012-2013 alone.¹  Most often, faculty are asking students to use social media to create original documents (or other media) in teams or to participate in collaborative discussions, rather than passive learning through lectures or assigned readings. Social bookmarking tools have been increasing in popularity, with several companies offering products with slightly different features.

Top social bookmarking sites such as Diigo, delicious.com, and StumbleUpon provide a variety of ways to bookmark sites and discover related sources that have been identified by other users. While StumbleUpon allows the user to discover new sources based on tags, saved preferences, and ‘liking’ new material the site suggests, it doesn’t allow group formation. This limits the utility of StumbleUpon for collaborative classroom work. Delicious.com and Diigo both allow users to selectively share saved bookmarks for web sites, articles, videos, and a plethora of other online media all in one place.² One can organize these resources via unique titles, keyword tags, lists, and topic groupings. Both programs are cloud-based, allowing users to access information from anywhere, at any time. Since most students possess smart phones or digital devices, mobile apps are also available, further increasing adaptability. Where Diigo excels above some of its competitors is the ability to annotate the bookmarked materials. Users can make specific comments, highlight, and post sticky notes anywhere on the pages, and share these publicly or within created groups.

How does this translate to collaborative learning in higher education? Both delicious.com and Diigo support creation of private groups, which allows educators to invite students in their class to share and interact without compromising student privacy. Since a large percentage of instructors feel trepidation about incorporating social media into the classroom due to privacy concerns, this minimizes this potential roadblock.¹ Users create their own username, which is the only identifiable source of information shared within class groups.

This all sounds great, but you’re probably asking, “How can a bookmarking tool be used to enhance learning?”  Certainly, it is a valid question! Gao recently published a case study looking at a collaborative learning activity designed with Diigo.³ Students evaluated an online article and participated in a group discussion utilizing highlights, comments and sticky notes to discuss and critique the assigned reading. Students’ comments often built upon a previous post or further developed someone else’s ideas. The author reported that the activity stimulated self-reflection, elaboration, and internalization. None of the students reported conflicts arising from the discussion, and the majority found Diigo supported learning and the tool helped them to effectively critique the article.

Social bookmarking and annotation opens up a realm of possibilities for use in health professional education. Utilizing social interactions, exploiting the availability of online media, and creating activities that stimulate “unintentional” learning opportunities, online collaborative learning is grounded in the social cognitive and situated learning theories.^4,5 Students develop skills in information organization, resource sharing, and group discussion; together this advances critical thinking skills, meta-cognition, improved reading comprehension, and incorporates real-life application to classroom activities.^5,6

A recent article in the American Journal of Pharmacy Education suggests social bookmarking can be utilized in pharmacy education to create a shared library for students to access resources during a project or course.⁷ Moreover, students can create this resource library themselves. In my opinion, this is a limited view, and I envision other possibilities.  For example, social annotation could be used in multiple courses throughout the pharmacy curriculum. One could create collaborative teams in therapeutics and assign a difficult patient case for small groups to follow over a semester. Students could highlight relevant sections of evidence-based guidelines, leaving comments and discussing how to best apply evidence to the patient case. The other groups in the class would do the same, creating an interactive, collaborative learning environment that might allow greater exposure to clinical application of class materials. One could also employ the bookmarking and social annotation function for a literature evaluation course. All of these methods help student build collaboration, organizational, and research skills, which are all essential to becoming a competent health professional.

One must utilize social media and bookmarking tools only if they naturally help achieve the learning objectives of the course.  These tools should enhance learning, not direct it. With the exponential increase of social media in education, and the desire to engage students in collaborative tasks mirroring the real-world, social bookmarking offers a very strong addition to the arsenal of tools we can use to create dynamic, engaging learning environments. I dare you to try it out for yourself. But I must warn you. It can be addicting!

References

1. Seamean J, Tinti-Kane H. Social media for teaching and learning. Pearson Learning Solutions. [Internet]. 2013. [cited 2014 Oct 10].
2. Ruffini MF. Classroom collaboration using social bookmarking service Diigo. [Internet]. 2011 Sep 17. [cited 2014 Oct 16].
3. Gao F. A case study of using a social annotation tool to support collaboratively learning. Internet and Higher Education. 2013;17:76-83.
4. Piaget J. The equilibration of cognitive structures: the central problem of intellectual development. 1^st ed. Brown T, Kishore JT, translator. Chicago: Univ of Chicago Pr, 1985. 178 p.
5. Lave J, Wenger E. Situated learning: legitimate peripheral participation. 1^st ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. 138 p.
6. Novak E, Razzouk R, Johnson TE. The educational use of social annotation tools in higher education: a literature review. Internet and Higher Education. 2013;15:39-49.
7. Cain J, Fox BI. Web 2.0 and Pharmacy Education. Am J Pharm Educ. 2009;73:Article 120.

The Socratic Method for Developing Critical Thinking

by Naaseha Rizvi, Pharm.D., PGY1 Pharmacy Resident, Johns Hopkins Bayview Medical Center

Starting my second week of my internal medicine rotation, my preceptor told me that I would be responsible for leading the pre-round group discussion sessions from now on.  Our “group” included not only the preceptor and myself, but also two advance pharmacy practice experience (APPE) students. I had watched my preceptor lead these sessions effortlessly the first week, so I thought “this can’t be that hard, right?” Wrong! After the first few sessions, I realized the questions that I asked were random and unsystematic.  The students were not benefitting from our discussion at all!  I remembered back to my days as an APPE student.  Some of my best preceptors were able to stimulate critical analysis by asking the right questions in the right order. They got me to think about my thinking – metacognition. I wanted to be able to do this for my students!  I decided to do some research.

There are many ways to teach critical thinking skills to students. A particularly tried and true method was developed by the ancient philosopher, Socrates.   Consequently, the teaching method is called the Socratic Method or Socratic Questioning. After a logical series of specific, systemic questions, Socrates observed that students were able to develop self-generated knowledge and regulate their thoughts.¹ The key to this method is to ask the right questions in the right sequence. Poorly thought-out questions can intimidate and confuse students.  Bad questions can even limit a student’s ability to think critically.² Questions generate an inquisitive mind, a mind that keeps forming new questions to find more answers, which may lead to more questions and so on and so forth.³

Why is it necessary to teach critical thinking skills? In order to provide the best care to patients, practitioners utilize the knowledge that comes from previous patients with similar diseases as well as current medical knowledge. The ability to make a logical and defendable connection between these two sources of knowledge to the current situation is critical thinking.¹ Three principles are important to keep in mind when teaching or stimulating critical thinking: 1) it is a skill that takes time to develop; 2) learners must use certain metacognitive strategies; and, 3) critical thinking relies on domain knowledge that the learner already possesses. It is challenging to validate methods for teaching critical thinking and the ability to yield consistently positive results to show improvement.¹ Different methods of instruction to develop critical thinking include group learning, case-based learning, concept mapping, and experiential education. The evidence regarding the effectiveness of the teaching strategies in promoting critical thinking is lacking.¹

How is the Socratic Method applied? How does it work? The Socratic Method requires the student to look at the deep structure of the question. To do so, they must have basic domain knowledge in the content area. The underlying goal of the Socratic Method is to prove opinions with facts. Therefore the student must have a frame of reference before the Socratic Method may be used. The authors of a recent article in the American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education outline the elements of the Socratic Method (See Table 1). The mnemonic PAPER CLIP (figure 1) can be used to construct a sequence of questions which stimulate deeper thinking.¹ Three types of questions are often used: exploratory, spontaneous and focused.² Exploratory questions show how much the student knows and may be used to introduce a new topic or review past discussions that may relate to the current topic. Spontaneous questions can be used to probe the student in exploring their beliefs and assumptions; they allow the student to reflect on the issue at hand. Focused questions narrow the discussion on what the preceptor would like the student to think about, stimulating them intellectually.²

Table 1. Effective  Socratic Questioning1

Raise basic issues Probe beneath the surface structure Pursue problematic areas of thought Aid students in discovering the truth of their own thought Aid students in developing sensitivity to clarity, accuracy, relevance and depth Aid students in arriving at judgments though their reasoning Help students analyze purposes, assumptions, questions, points of view, information, inferences, concepts and implications.

Figure 1.

By using this method of questioning, the student (hopefully) becomes inquisitive and motivated to learn. This method is quite different from another form of questioning called “pimping,” which may do more harm than good in terms of teaching critical thinking.¹ Although the effectiveness of the Socratic Method has not been studied, a few articles describe its benefits in health professional education. In one study conducted at the Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, third and fourth year medical students participated in a series of 90-minute conferences.  The instructors used a traditional didactic method as well as the interactive Socratic Method interchangeably.  Each method was used approximately the same amount of time. After the conference, students were given a survey to determine their preference. The majority of students preferred the Socratic Method over the didactic method (93.3 vs 6.7%, p < 0.001).⁴

After constructing the Socratic questions, it is important to use them in an effective manner.²  Avoid compound questions that require multiple answers as it can cause confusion. Provide a safe environment where students can express their thoughts openly. Questions should be balanced in their cognitive level. Lastly, it is important to provide enough “wait time” after asking a question. For higher-order questions that stimulate critical thinking, as much as 1-2 minutes should be given for best responses.²

The Socratic Method is very well suited for students on experiential rotations.  The learner needs adequate domain knowledge in order for the Socratic Method to be most effective. Therefore, it may not work as well in a first year course where foundational knowledge needs to be acquired. In the pharmacy curriculum, the experiential rotations provide an opportunity for one-on-one interaction.  This is an ideal opportunity for the preceptor to use the Socratic Method. Students on experiential rotations typically have the foundational knowledge needed.  They just need to learn how to apply it towards patient care by learning how to think critically. By developing this vital skill, students will be well equipped to practice pharmacy.

References:

1. Oyler DR, Romanelli F. The fact of ignorance: Revisiting the Socratic Method as a tool for teaching critical thinking. Am J Pharm Educ. 2014;78: Article 144.
2. Tofade T, Elsner J, Haines ST. Best practice strategies for effective use of questions as a teaching tool. Am J Pharm Educ. 2013;77: Article 155.
3. The Critical Thinking Community.  The Role of Socratic Questioning in Thinking, Teaching, and Learning. 2013. Accessed October 25, 2014.
4. Zou L, King A, Soman S, et al. Medical students' preferences in radiology education a comparison between the Socratic and didactic methods utilizing powerpoint features in radiology education. Acad Radiol. 2011;18:253-6.

Service-Learning: From Theory to Practice

by Margaret Miklich, Pharm.D., PGY-1 Pharmacy Practice Resident, University of Maryland Medical Center

Service, combined with learning, adds value to each and transforms both.¹

                       -Honnet and Paulsen (1989)

When asked why they’ve chose their career path, many health professionals say “I like helping people.”  I would argue that serving rather than helping people is really what drew them. I initially began contemplating this concept after reading Rachel Naomi Remen’s essay entitled Helping, Fixing or Serving?  In it she states, “Fixing and helping create a distance between people, but we cannot serve at a distance. We can only serve that to which we are profoundly connected.”  I’ve reflected on this concept for many years.

Service-learning embodies the idea that community service and classroom learning can be intimately intertwined.  Service is more meaningful when informed by theoretical frameworks.  And conceptual knowledge is better understood when examined through the lens of real world experiences.

While the first formal service-learning program was established in 1965, it wasn’t until the 1980’s and 90’s that a concerted effort was made to develop the theory and refine the practice of service-learning.²  Today, service-learning activities are pervasive and commonplace in curricula — from elementary school to undergraduate and graduate programs. In 2008, 20% of elementary schools across the nation participated in some form of service-learning.³ In the same year, a Campus Compact survey revealed that 93% of member colleges and universities offered courses that included some form of service-learning.  That’s 24,271 course offerings at 627 responding institutions!⁴

Given the vast number of service-learning opportunities, it's not surprising that a number of theories have been proposed to explain why service leads to learning.  And there are an even greater number of practices that attempt to guide how to conduct service-learning activities. There are common themes running through the proposed theories.  More important, all agree (proponents and critics alike) that how service-learning activities are constructed is extremely important.^5,6 Before we examine the how, let’s take a quick look at the theoretical framework of service-learning.

Theory

Service-learning is most often explained using constructivist educational theory.  Constructivists believe that learners construct meaning from their experiences.  Learning is an active process prompted by new experiences and interactions that challenge prior understanding. An essential component of constructivism is for the learner to critically reflect on the new experience. It is only through reflection that learners decide if, when, and how they will alter their current knowledge and perceptions.⁷

There are several scholars who contributed to the theory of constructivism including Jean Piaget, John Dewey, and Maria Montessori (who developed an educational approach and schools bearing her name). David Kolb (who developed the Learning Style Inventory) used constructivist theory in his work on experiential learning.

Service-learning leads to learning so long as it includes experience, inquiry, and reflection.⁸ In order for knowledge to be recalled and applied, it must be gained through a situational experience. Inquiry then takes place when this new experience seemingly defies or contradicts prior knowledge.  Finally, reflection demands that inconsistencies between prior knowledge and knew experiences be reconciled.⁹

Practice
Individuals, organizations, and expert panels have all weighed in on how to best construct service-learning activities. While there is significant diversity in the proposed approaches to service-learning, common themes have emerged:

1) Service learning should be integrated into the curriculum or course in a purposeful way. Clear goals for both the service and the learning components must be articulated. Service activities should be designed with course objectives in mind and should clearly connect to learning goals.^1,5,10

2) Requiring students to reflect on the experience is critical. Reflection must occur before, during, and after service. Not only should reflection take place at regular and purposefully constructed intervals, but it should be rigorous. Methods for reflecting should be varied and should include written, oral, and nonlinguistic approaches. Reflections should be self-assessed by students and assessed by instructors.^1,5,9,10

3) Service-learning should be meaningful. The service activity should address a legitimate, unmet community need. Meaningfulness can also be achieved by allowing students to choose the issue they want their service to address. Moreover, meaningfulness is achieved through the relationships that students form while they are completing the activity.^1,5

4) Service-learning requires a significant time commitment. The time commitment should be sufficient for students to have multiple experiences coupled with inquiry and reflection. One experience is unlikely to be sufficient. Moreover, rigorous inquiry and reflection requires elaboration in the form of papers, discussions, and other forms of expression. It is only through inquiry and reflection that students recognize discordance between their prior experiences and modify their knowledge, perspectives, and opinions.^1,5,8 All of this takes time!

Three-quarters of colleges and schools of pharmacy reported some form of service-learning in their curriculum in 2002.¹¹ There are many ways to structure a service-learning course but using proven strategies is likely to be more effective. One paper describes a service-learning course at the Worchester/Manchester campuses of the Massachusetts College of Pharmacy and Health Science (MCPHS) and studies student learning.¹² The course consisted of five components: 1) service work in community settings; 2) seminars on topics such as communication and diversity, 3) guided journal writing (reflection); 4) guest speakers on community service activities such as homeless shelters and AIDS services; and 5) student-led presentations about their service activities and what they learned.

Let’s examine whether this course followed the best-practices principles for service-learning. Objectives were clearly set and service activities appeared to connect to course objectives. The reflection activities were not described in detail but students were required to answer a series of questions in weekly journal entries. Of note, when compared to the other components of the course, student reported learning the least from the journaling activity. It is difficult to say whether the service activities were meaningful but presumably they met real community needs. Students were allowed to rate their interests and had some say in the service activities they completed. With regard to duration, students were required to participate in two hours of service each week in addition to attending a weekly one-hour session at the school. The time allotted appears to be sufficient for students to make repeated site visits, gain new experiences, develop relationships, and engage in inquiry and reflection.

By understanding constructivist theory and intentionally applying the best practice principles, instructors can successfully implement service-learning activities into their schools’ curriculum. Service-learning is an excellent example of how theory informs practice.

References

1. Honnet EP and Poulsen . Principles of Good Practice for Combining Service and Learning. Johnson Foundation, Inc.
2. Marullo S. Service-Learning: A Movement’s Pioneers Reflect on its Origins, Practice and Future. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning 1999; 6:133-137.
3. Community Service and Service-Learning in America’s Schools [Internet]. Corporation for National and Community Service. 2008.
4. Service Statistics 2008: Highlights and Trends from Campus Compact’s Annual Membership Survey [Internet]. Campus Compact. Boston: MA. 2009.
5. Billig SH. Unpacking What Works in Service-Learning. Growing to Greatness. National Youth Leadership Council. 2007.
6. Eby JW. Why Service-Learning is Bad. 1998.
7. Kaufman DM. ABC of learning and teaching in medicine: Applying educational theory practice. BMJ 2003;326:213-6.
8. Giles DE and Eyler J. The Theoretical Roots of Service-Learning in John Dewey: Toward a Theory of Service-Learning. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning. 1994 Fall; 1: 77-85.
9. Bringle RG and Hatcher JA. Reflection in Service-Learning: Making Meaning of Experience. Educational Horizons. Summer 1999. 179-185.
10. USCDornsife. Joint Educational Project. University of Southern Californa. 2014.
11. Peters SJ, MacKinnon GE. Introductory practice and service-learning experiences in US pharmacy curricula. Am J Pharm Educ. 2004;68(1): Article 27.
12. Kearney KR. A service-learning course for first-year pharmacy students. Am J Pharm Educ. 2008;72(4):Article 86.