Personality Tests for Learners – Discovering Your Learning Style

by Stella Chan, PharmD, PGY-1 Pharmacy Resident, MedStar Union Memorial Hospital

You have probably taken a personality test. It might have been as simple five question online quiz or as involved as the Myers-Briggs personality inventory.  Most people are curious learn more about their personality type.  But have you ever taken a learning style questionnaire?  Everybody has their own learning style, and these questionnaires were developed to help shed some light on how we best learn.  Knowing your learning style can help you learn more successfully; and as teachers, it is important to help your students understanding their learning styles.   There are a few different types of surveys out there which provide “insight into the ways learners perceive, interact with, and respond to the environment in which learning occurs.”¹

First, let’s talk about the different learning styles known as VAKT (which stands for Visual, Auditory, Kinesthetic-Tactile).  These learning styles related to how we learn in response to environmental stimuli.² Visual learners learn best through interpreting graphics, body language, and facial expressions during lessons.  Visual learners often prefer sitting at the front of the room to have a clear view of the presenter.  And they tend to like diagrams, illustrated text books, videos, and colorful handouts.  Auditory learners learn best through lectures, discussions, talking things through problems, and listening to what others have to say.  They can interpret the underlying meanings of speech based on tone, pitch, and speed of the presenter’s voice.  Auditory learners also like to record lectures and listen to them later.  Kinesthetic/tactile learners learn best through a hands-on approach.  They may find it hard to sit through a long lecture without some sort of activity in the middle.

Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory (LSI) combines two major cognitive dimensions:  the active-reflective dimension and the abstract-concrete dimension.³  From these dimensions, Kolb developed four learning styles:  diverger, assimilator, converger, and accommodator.  However, research has shown that the LSI had low predictive validity and thus, the Learning Style Questionnaire (LSQ) was subsequently developed by Honey and Munford. Similar to Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory, the Honey and Munford learning style questionnaire reveals  four distinct preferences:  Activist, Theorist, Pragmatist, and Reflector.  Honey and Munford believe that individuals move between the four different preferences depending on the situation and their level of expertise in the subject, rather than being locked into one.⁴  These learning style tests include not only perception but also information processing rather than just focusing on the environmental stimuli (such as with the VAKT learning styles test).  Activists are students who enjoy being challenged by new experiences and being involved in projects with others.  Theorists prefer to think through problems systematically and understand the theories behind what is being taught.  Pragmatists learn best when they are able to apply what they learn to real life stituations.  These students may benefit most from case studies and discussions about what others have experienced in the real world.  Reflectors learn by observing activities and drawing conclusions about what they see; they prefer receiving feedback from others and having time to review concepts prior to applying them.⁵

Anthony Grasha and Sheryl Reichmann developed the Grasha-Reichmann Learning Style Scales in 1974 to determine college students' preferences for classroom participation.  The questionnaire has a series of statements that the student can rate from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) including: “I enjoy discussing my ideas about course content with other students,” “I can determine for myself the important content issues in a course,” and “I prefer to work on class related projects by myself.”⁶  The responses are then tallied up to determine what preferred social learning preferences the student has:  Independent, Dependent, Avoidant, Participant, Collaborative, and Competitive.  Independent students prefer to think for themselves and work on their own.  Dependent students generally only learn what is required of them and look for specific guidelines on what to do and how to do it.  Avoidant types are not enthusiastic about learning the content and will require a lot of coaxing to complete activities.  Participant students enjoy taking responsibility for getting the most out of their lesson.  Collaborative describes students who enjoy sharing their ideas and working in groups.  Competitive students learn content in order to achieve a better grade than their peers or to receive the teacher’s praise.⁷

There are many questionnaires available that can inform students about the learning strategies that work best for them.  These questionnaires focus on different learning style preferences and probably yield the best results when a few questionnaires are used.  By figuring out which VAKT learning style learners are most drawn to, they will understand what type of environmental stimuli they learn best from.  Using Honey and Munford’s questionnaire, learners will understand how to best process the content delivered to them.  By utilizing the learning scale developed by Grasha and Reichmann, learners can determine whether they work best in groups or alone.  By putting all of these learning scales together, students can better understand how they learn, can select courses that use methods they are more likely to enjoy, and adjust their study habits to learn most effectively!

References:

1. Brown BL. Teaching style vs. learning style. Educational Resources Information Center: Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education; 2003.
2. Coffield F, Moseley D, Hall E, et al. Learning styles and pedagogy in post 16 learning: a systematic and critical review. The Learning and Skills Research Centre; 2004 [cited 2015 Oct 9].
3. Allinson CW and Hayes J. The learning styles questionnaire: an alternative to Kolb’s inventory? Journal of Management Studies. 1988; 25(3): 269-81.
4. Honey P and Mumford A.  The learning styles helper’s guide. Maidenhead: Peter Honey Publications Ltd; 2000 (revised edition 2006).
5. Mobbs R. Honey and Mumford. University of Leicester. Leicester, UK. [cited 2015 Oct 20]
6. Grasha-Reichmann student learning style inventory. Office of Information Technology: Claremont, CA. Claremont Graduate University [cited 2015 Nov 9].

Beyond “You Can Do It!” — Supporting Learner Autonomy

by Jessica Biggs, Pharm.D., PGY2 Pediatric Pharmacy Practice Resident, University of Maryland School of Pharmacy

If you are a teacher reading this blog now, I’m sure you would agree that some students seem more motivated than others. While this may be the case, not all students respond the same way to motivators. In other words, motivation is not fully explained by HOW motivated students are, but also by WHAT is motivating them. Are they studying diligently for that pharmacology test with the hopes of getting an A to please their parent? Are they studying because they have a genuine interest in the topic? Or is it a combination of these factors? Autonomous motivation, or a desire to learn due to a genuine interest, has been associated with greater effort and higher academic performance.^1,2 Unfortunately, many educators fail to create an environment that fosters learner autonomy.

According to the self-determination theory (SDT), some learners are motivated primarily by controlled motivation.  Others are motivated more by autonomous motivation.  Controlled motivation refers to a student learning something due to external pressures (such as a parent or teacher), internal pressures (such as guilt or stress), or to gain a reward (such as a passing grade or screen time).³ This form of motivation can be seen in B.F. Skinner’s behaviorism studies.  Behaviorists often use a system of rewards (and punishments) to motivate learner participation. On the opposite end of the spectrum, autonomous motivation refers to learning that resulted from a genuine, internally perceived personal value or interest.³ Simply put, controlled factors are not the primary, or sole, source of motivation. In reality, for most students, the source of motivation is not so black and white.  Motivators often overlap.

What exactly does the term “autonomy” refer to? Autonomy is synonymous with volition. When students are autonomous, they act on their internal desire to align the learning activities with their sense of self.³ It is important to note that autonomous learning does NOT require students to work alone or without assistance.

At this point you may be thinking: How is it possible for students to be autonomously motivated?  There’s no way that they will be interested in absolutely everything I teach?  Autonomous motivation is still possible even if the student is not truly interested in the subject matter because autonomous learners are able to identify the value and personal importance of what they are learning.³ For example, as a pharmacy resident, I am not genuinely interested in learning how to perform open-heart surgery.  I do not wish to be a surgeon. On the other hand, I would gladly accept the opportunity to shadow a cardiac surgeon performing open-heart surgery because I see the value in understanding the complexity of the heart and the cardiac anatomy.  This kind of knowledge would be relevant so that I better understand the cardiac medications that I work with and would be useful during my patient education sessions. I am able to see the value in this learning experience.

Even though I am early in my career, I already see the importance of fostering a sense of learner autonomy. In medical education, autonomous learning has been associated with enhanced learner effort, superior performance academically, as well as reduced learner exhaustion.^1,2  Since I was given opportunities to act autonomously both as a pharmacy student and as a first-year resident, I can attest that I have more energy to take on learning tasks that align with my goals and my performance is better.

So how can we support this type of learning? Small group teaching, problem or case-based learning, and a gradual escalation in learner responsibility and tasks are all appropriate methods.³ Asking students to lead patient case discussions in a small group environment (with other students or pharmacy residents) is an effective tactic. With increased autonomy however, it is also essential to provide constructive feedback, acknowledge students’ perspectives, and ask for learner goals and preferences.⁶ All of these learning opportunities should be done in a structured manner with an appropriate level of learner challenge because allowing a student to “run wild” with their own learning is not what is meant by autonomous learning.

Admittedly, it is often a struggle to achieve a balance between fostering learner autonomy and providing adequate supervision. How can a resident (or pharmacy student) gain real-life experience, including the opportunity to take care of patients autonomously, while also being appropriately supervised to ensure patient safety?⁵  Many teachers struggle with this balance and some micro-manage student activities when it comes to patient care. In these situations learners may feel their ability to make their own choices and decisions, one of the important aspects of autonomy, is compromised.¹

As a second-year pharmacy resident I have witnessed the progression of learner autonomy, both as a learner and now as a supporter of students who seek greater autonomy. Personal experience has proven to me that practicing in an environment that fosters autonomy will give a learner the best chance to shine and demonstrate their intrinsic motivation. It is the job of educators to support learner autonomy – to help students view the materials they are studying or the tasks that they are completing as opportunities that will pave the way to the future goals that they hope to achieve.

References

1. Kusurkar RA, Croiset G, Galindo-Garre F, Ten Cate TJ. Motivational profiles of medical students: association with study effort, academic performance and exhaustion. BMC Med Educ. 2013; 13: 87.
2. Kusurkar RA, Ten Cate, TJ, Vos CM, Westers P, Croiset G. How motivation affects academic performance: a structural equation modelling analysis. Adv Health Sci Educ. 2013; 18: 57-69.
3. Kusurkar RA and Croiset G. Autonomy support for autonomous motivation in medical education. Med Educ Online. 2015; 20: 27591.
4. Deci EL, Ryan RM. The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychol Inq. 2000; 11: 227-68.
5. Hoffman BD. Using self-determination theory to improve residency training: learning how to make omelets without breaking eggs. Acad Med. 2015; 90: 408-410.
6. Cate TJ, Kusurkar RA, Williams GC. How self-determination theory can assist our understanding of the teaching and learning processes in medical education. AMEE Guide. 2011; 33: 961-973.

Maximizing Learner Attention

By Virginia Nguyen, Pharm.D., PGY1 Community Pharmacy Practice Resident, Johns Hopkins Outpatient Pharmacy

We’ve all heard it before. There’s a right time for everything — and learning is no exception. Research has shown that there are some physiologic reasons why some people are ‘morning people’ and some are ‘evening/night people.’  Our individual circadian rhythms affect our attention, executive functioning, and memory.^1,2 Some studies have shown that those who are left brain-dominant perform better in the morning while those who are more right brain-dominant perform better in the afternoon.^3,4

While it is interesting to note how some may perform better in the morning compared to others, it is impossible for an instructor to optimally time a presentation or lecture to coincide with every learner’s physiological predilection. What is more important for educators to focus on are the factors that they can control that will maximize learning. Below are a few tips and tools for educators to make the most of their learner’s time and attention.

Keeping it short and sweet

In the day and age of social media, texting, and email alerts going off on a smartphone, laptop, and/or tablet, chances are instructors are perpetually competing for their learner’s attention. A recent Microsoft study found that the human attention span has decreased from 12 seconds in 2000 to 8 seconds in 2015.⁶ In order to make every second count, be sure to start your educational activity with a hook to gain the audience’s attention. If you aren’t able to gain their attention off the bat, there’s small chance you’ll be able to sustain it for the entirety of your instructional activity.

Breaking it up

Studies have shown that adults can only sustain attention for about 20 minutes at a time.  Experiencing multiple stimuli during those 20 minutes help to maximize and maintain attention.⁷ Think about movies or the NFL RedZone- both of these sources are able to grab the audience’s attention by producing multiple stimuli (different angles and clips) every few seconds or 1-2 minutes at the most. The effect multiple stimuli enables the learner to stay focused longer than if a single stimuli is used for minutes on end.

For most lesson plans, showing multiple movie or football clips isn’t feasible; however, breaking up the lesson plan by creating different stimuli related to the instructional objectives can help the audience recharge and stay engaged. Consider for every 4-5 minutes of instruction, there should be a change.  Perhaps interrupting the lecture with a discussion question, active learning technique, or different way to present the material. Use media clips or pictures to break up the monotony of your PowerPoint presentation. Using different stimuli not only maximizes the audience’s attention but also their ability to learn.

Get up and move

Taking physical and mental breaks are just as important. There’s a reason why the MLB created the 7^th inning stretch, and it’s not just so we can sing ‘Take me out to the ballgame.’ Studies have shown that physical activity can help to boost energy levels, attention, and academic performance.⁵ Although recess has been phased out of schools across the country, consider giving the audience a physical recess or break from the material to digest and recharge. The audience doesn’t necessarily need to run laps around a track or do jumping jacks, but simply getting up to walk around will help your audience get back on track (no pun intended).

Timing it right

You, as the instructor, are not the only one accountable for maximizing audience attention (spoiler alert: the audience member is also responsible for this). While it’s impossible to sync instructional activities to account for all left and right brain-dominant audience members, what is possible is encouraging each audience member to identify times during the day they are most attentive and to use that time to enhance their learning. Depending on the audience member’s ‘peak’ time for being most awake and attentive, recommend they use this time to focus on tasks that require his or her full attention and problem-solving skills. For the avid coffee drinker, it’s best to think of it this way: save the tasks that require a high level of thinking once your cup of coffee has kicked in.

Summary

While we can’t teach a lecture or activity to match the physiologic and biochemical changes of each student, we can make sure that what we teach captures their attention and energy- no matter what time that is. Depending on the length of your instructional activity, consider the impact of grabbing your audience’s attention, interjecting active learning strategies every few minutes, and incorporating breaks to maintain it.  Encourage your audience members to identify times that they are most awake and attentive and to use that to their advantage in completing learning tasks.

References

1. Schmidt C, Collette F, Cajochen C, et al. A time to think: Circadian rhythms in human cognition. Cogn Neuropsychol 2007;24(7):755-89.
2. Wile AJ, Shouppe GA. Does Time-of-Day of Instruction Impact Class Achievement? Perspectives in Learning: A Journal of the College of Education & Health Professions, Columbus State University 2011;12(1):21-25.
3. Klein, J. Attention, scholastic achievement and timing of lessons. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research 2001;45(3):301-309.
4. Millar K, Styles B, Wastell D. Time of day and retrieval from longterm memory. British Journal of Psychology 1980;71:407-414.
5. Singh A, Ulijtdewilligen L, Twisk JW, et al. Physical activity and performance at school: a systematic review of the literature including a methodological quality assessment. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2012;166(1):49-55
6. Watson L. Humans have shorter attention span than goldfish, thanks to smartphones [Internet]. London (UK): The Telegraph, Telegraph Media Group Limited. 2015 May 15 [cited 2015 Oct 23].
7. Islam K. Attention Span and Performance Improvement [Internet]. Cary (NC): Training Industry, Training Industry, Inc. 2013 1 Mar [cited 2015 Oct 24].